Economy, Trade and Commerce I

Economic conditions play a significant role in determining the cultural Progress of a particular geographical unit. 2History of civilization clearly Demonstrates that periods of cultural florescence have always been periods of plenty and prosperity because unless elementary needs of existence are provided there will not be any effort towards culture progress2 .In India the river basins have always helped the development of the culture of the region. The fertile regions along the banks of great rivers like the Indus, the Ganges, the Narmada, the Tapti, the Krisna, and the Tungabhandra etc have always been noted for their material prosperity which has afforded the people of these river basins enough leisure and resources to pursue culture achievement. The Godavari basin is not an exception to the general rule. As noticed already, paithan is situated on the bank of the river Godavari. The basins of Godavari are noted for its fertility since ages. So also Paithan is noted for its agricultural products since the dawn of Godavari valley Civilization. The economic life of the people of this region was governed by the laws and sanctions lay down by the Dharma-Sastras and other religious traditions. The early Dharma-Sastras regarded agriculture, trade and industry as undesirable professions. Manu characterized them as pramrite [“what caused death”] and Satyanrita [mixture of truth and falsefood] and therefore they were capable of running families. While Brihaspati condemned the wealth earned by these professions, theBudhist and the Jain Canonical laws also neglected these professions with disfavour.

Therefore, while prescribing the professions for different castes, the Dharma-Sastras prohibited agriculture, trade and industry to the upper classes. The Brahmanas were expected to devote themselves to spiritual and intellectual pursuits while the krhatriyas were asked to indulge in war and politics. However, the Vaisyas were to take to productive occupations and the Sudras were asked to live on agriculture, trade, handicrafts, cattle breeding etc. To this general convention an exception of Apadharma [in times of extreme crisis] was provided for. And in India, the free choice of occupation was limited by the rigid caste system. The factors determining the economic prosperity The economic development of the region is conditioned by several factors. Firstly, the economic life of the people was largely based on the physical background of region. Secondly, since the dawn of history, Indian economy is based on agricultural products. Thus India2s socio-economic base has been oriented towards agriculture. Consequently the majority of the people were always engaged on land. Agriculture had provided the base for taxation .Even today the land revenue is the main source of Indian economy. Thirdly, it was trade and commerce which produced economic surplus for it is wealth that begets wealth. Fourthly, the political stability provides the bases of sound economic system. Fifthly, in ancient times religion played a vital role in the process of economics growth. The political Patronage and the religious sanctions had accelerated the economic progress. An attempt is made here to describe how Paithan had all the required facilities and how it became an important trade centre of international reputation. Agriculture Agriculture has been the main occupation of the people of this region. As noticed already good lands with fertile soil, plentiful water supply and agreeable climate made this area as the granary of the district. This fact is evidenced by the various excavations done so far. Again the mode of construction of houses which consist of a large underground godown supports and method of storage. These godowns are being used as seasonal storehouses. Pre – Satavahana period Our knowledge of the extent of the technique and method of cultivation during the pre-Satavahana period is very limited. Pratishthana was a developed centre having agriculture as their main source of livelihood. Even the stories of Aryanisation confirm the above facts. The Aryan clans which migrated from the northen India and those well acquainted with the river side agriculture preferred this particular fertile basin of Godavari. With great efforts they successfully managed their plantation and settled themselves in this particular area. The name Pratishthana is suggestive of the fact. During the period of Aryanization, there was a great need to bring more lands under cultivation and hence every encouragement was given to achieve the result. The individual who cleared the forest and took steps to extend the area of cultivation was given a right to enjoy the fruits of his efforts. According to Manu, 2the field belonged to him who cleared away the timber and the deer to him who just wounded it2. Manu and Gautama suggest that giving separate households for brothers would result in better religious merit. All these were intended to promote individual ownership of land so that the landlords could develop personal interest in cultivation. As noticed already, pratishthana was the capital of the Janapadas like Mulaka, Asmaka and Petenika. Being a capital it served as the center of trade and commerce. During the periods the nature of commerce was rather primitive and mainly based on barter system. Thus we may conclude that the region is known for its fertility from the earliest times. As it was a center of surplus production it gave boosting to trade and commerce. The political patronage added to its commercial values. Agriculture under the Satavahanas The advent of the Satavahanas to power opened a new chapter in the economic history of Paithan. By issuing a number of land grants to the worthy cultivators they tried to promote cultivation. The earliest epigraphical evidence to this effect can be had from the Managua record where the grant of a village was recorded. The gifted lands were exempted from revenue. This is again evident from the warning issued to the royal officers by Gautamiputra. Again it was expected that the granted land should be well cultivated otherwise the concerned village would not be settled. The landholdings seem to have been moderate ranging from two to forty Nivartanas. A Nivartana is equal to one and a half acre. However, certain holdings were big to the extent of 100 Nivartanas. From this it is evident that the process of fragmentation of land was popular. But it was checked by the joint family system. However, the growing density of population in fertile river regions also added the strength to the tendency for fragmentation of land. Thus the scope for the formation of large agriculture Holding was limited. Type of agriculture products From Gathasaptasati of Hala it is evidenced that Charu [rice] was produced on large scale. Wheat, Javar and cotton were the common crops. Besides, these there were the mustard seeds, the pulses [the gram], the nuts [groundnuts] and the oil seeds etc. Post – Satvahana periods Agriculture continued to be the basic industry during the post- Satavahana period. This can be evident from the various charters issued in connection with the grants of land by the various succeeding dynasties. The grants are as follows: Vakatakas The Poona plates of prabhavatigupta mentions the grants of village Danguna to the Acharya Chanala Svami, a Brahamana of Paithan. The donated village was situated in the Sapratishthita-ahara. The Jamba plates of Pravarsena-|| mentions the grant of a village kotharukagrama of Sapratishthita-ahara and the donee was Kalutaka, the Brahmana pandita. The Wadegaon Plates of Pravarsena-|| mentions the grant of 400 Nivartanas of land of the of the village valusuka of Sapratishthita-ahara .unfortunately we have no reference from the Chalukya dynasty. However , we may presume that under Chalukyas Agriculture was in a flourishing condition. Rashtrakutas The Sinar Charter of Dhruva records a gift of a village ‘Brihat-Pushkarika’ of Pratishthana division to a Brahmana ‘Vardjana’. The Paithan plates of govinda lll records the grant of a village Limbarmika from pratishthana Bhukti to a number of a Braminas from Paithan. The Copper plates of India lll register a gift of a village Khairondi from pratishthana division. Yadavas The Paithan plates of the Yadav king Ramchandra record of a gift of a gift of Vanthangrama from the Seundesa division. The donated village and the surrounding villages which were mentioned in the copper plates were from Paithan jurisdiction. So from the above evidences it is clear that agriculture was the main industry during these periods. Generally land was divided into three different categories: the land of the king (Mahipati), the land owner [Svami], and the cultivator [Krishika]. This is more or less confirmed by Brihaspati who makes it clear that landowner [Svami] occupied an intermediate position between the king and the actual tiller of the soil. Viewed from the above discussion, it is clear that the agriculture system of the region was entirely based on the monsoon. The Indian monsoon is known for its variety of moods. Besides facing the moods of the changing monsoons the agriculture have to face the natural calamities like draughts and floods. Famine is a common factor the Indian economy and every decade is marked by a famine. The famine of 1467 A.D was the most severe one because it lasted for seven continuous years. It was believed that the malevolence of the goddess ‘Durga’ was the root cause of that natural calamity. It is also known as the famine of Durgadi. Because of the continuity of the famine the entire economy was ruined and the centers of Sanskrit learning were shattered. During this famine, many learned Brahmanas migrated to Kashi. Among them the Bhatt families were prominent ones. All the Vatanas [i.e. the land gifts to a reputed person] were ruined. The temples were also ruined and the population was scattered. So the famine of 1467 A.D inflicted a severe blow which distributed the traditional city from its rich inheritance. As noted already, the Bahamani layer, from the paithan excavations was discovered to be filled with mud and silt. Then it would be no wonder, if he [the common farmer] was made to feel that his sufferings or happiness was the fruit of a divine malevolence or benevolence. And only for this reason, he felt convinced that without the grace of God, his personal efforts would be of no value and the best things would be the absolute submission to the desires of the Almighty. Thus the nature and the structure of the agriculture economy, in which more than ninety percent population was engaged, compelled the farmer to be religious- minded. And it is rather striking that the religious centers like Paithan were enriched by the offerings, those were made by the poor peasants who wanted to escape from their traditional sufferings. He came there with the hope to lead a comfortable life and the clever priests convinced him to be hopeful forever. If we compare the hardships of the farmers of other than river basin, the common peasants of this region were better placed and well contented. And because of the contented life they were attracted towards such centers. Trade and Commerce Paithan seems to have been an important centre of trade and commerce even during the pr- satavahana period. The arthasatras of kautily gives some information regarding the volume of the trade of the south in the age of early Mauryan empire. Although it was deficient in woollen cloth, hides and horses , Daksinapatha abounds in counch shells, diamonds , precious stones, pearls and articles of gold. Moreover, the southern trade routes across Daksinapatha traverse a territory rich in mines and valuable merchandise, is frequented by many and easy to travel by. And from the Buddhist literature it is evident that Pratishthana was the great capital city and centre of great commercial activities. The emergence of the Satavahanas totally transformed the facet of Pratishthana centre. It enjoyed the commercial status in those days just as any commercial place in modern times . Hence during the times of the satavahanas, paithan attained a status of great international reputation. There was very brisk and wide-spread inland trade because of the prosperity of the region. This is testified by the Greek travelers and geographers. According to them, there were a number of market towns along the west part of the Deccan plateau like Paithan. Tagara, Junnar, Nasik etc. Being the capital city and a town of great consequence it was well linked with the other trading centres and ports on the eastern and western coast lines. So it is necessary to study the role played by Paithan as an important trading centre. Trade routes As noted above, Paithan was linked with the important political and commercial centers of the whole of India. This fact is evident from various stories of the Jatakas and of the Jaina literature. The description of the trade routes may be studied thus: Northern Routes The Vindhya and Satpura ranges separate the North India from the South. Because of the deserts of Kachha and Rajasthan, generally the northern-routes passed through Malva and Avanti. Naturally they cut across the valleys such as Narmada, Tapti and also the Ganges. Out of these routes the Pratishthana-Sravasti route was probably the oldest one. It is referred to in the Baveru-Jataka, where Baveru asked his disciples to follow the Sravasti- Pratishthana path with its six intermediate halts and frequent river crossings [Pratishthana-Mahishmati-Ujjain-Gandhara-Vidisa-Kosambi and Sravasti]. Again one route leads from Kosambi to Patiliputra and the next to Agra and Mathura and from Mathura the third leads to Indraprastha, Taxila, Gandhara, Balkha and from thence to the centers of the Inter continental central Asiatic routes. The route from Pratishthana to North India generally passed through the region of Ajanta hills [Markhinda] which are famous for its Buddhist caves and paintings and Bhogavardhana, a contemporary Janapada. The next important intermediary halt was the city of Burhanpur, adjoining the Tapti valley and the Satpura Mountain. The next halt Mahishmati, a famous ancient city, was situated at such a strategical point that both the ranges of Satpura [Saindva pass] and Vindhya [Gujari pass] meet in a point. The next halts were Ujjain and Vidisa. The supremacy of the Satavahanas over this region is testified by the Bhilasa epigraph. Thus the northen routes were important as they linked the southern metropolitan cities with the north Indian and Central Asiatic trading centres. Through there were much hardships while crossing the mountains and the rivers it was the safest and surest way because it avoided the hazards of sea voyage. Thus the whole of the northen India was commercially linked up with Pratishthana, the famous capital of the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas were very particular about their trade and commerce. There special interest in this context is evident from the following Jaina accounts. According to the Jaina tradition, once Salivahana asked his commander- in- chief to conquer Mathura. The commander- in- chief immediately left on an expedition. However, he did not dare to ask the king about the location of the city of Mathura that was to be conquered. Hence he conquered both the Mathuras [i.e. north as well as south Mathura]. Thus the story is suggestive of the over lordship of the Satavahanas on the said region, would safeguard their commercial interest with the foreign countries. Again the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva confirms the trade contacts between Pratishthana and the North Indian centres. It is mentioned that Dharma, a feudal lord travelled from Deccan to Malva and Sangramadatta was said to have carried gold on a camel back from Pratishthana to Patiliputra. Moreover, the Pratishthana-Ujjain route was marked by certain interesting intermediary centres. Firstly, there were certain ancient Janapadas like Bhogavardhana along the route. Secondly, the world famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora lay on it. The Buddhist rock cut caves and the paintings of Ajanta are famous since that time. The northen route from Ujjain, after crossing the river Narmada and proceeding towards modern Burhanpur came to the ancient town Bahal from where the caravans either went to south towards Pratishthana or west to Nasik. The famous caves of Ajanta, Pitalkhora and Aurangabad lay on the Bahal- Pratishthana route. The most strategic intermediate halt on the northern route was Ujjain or Avanti which was the most ancient town of India. And the acquisition of Ujjain by the Satavahanas was a matter of pride and prestige. The over lordship of the Satavahanas on city of Ujjain can be evidenced through a number of Jain stories. A certain Jaina Acharya freed his sister from the unlawful imprisonment by a king of foreign dynasty with the help of the help of the king, Satavahana. And it is evident that the sakas and Ksatrapass were alien to this region and Gautamiputra satakarni not only defeated the sakas and the ksatrapas but had exterminated them from the Indian soil. The restruck coins by Gautamiputra satakarni prove it beyond doubt. Again the sanchi epigraphs confirm the said fact. The southern Routes The Southern- Routes were directly connected with Paithan. Paithan’s connections with southern areas were of a different nature when compared to the north. It was due to the fact that their empire extended from West coast to East coast. Further, the entire trade from the ports likes Masula on the East coast and the islands centers such as kondapur and Tagara was directly connected with Pratishthana. It is possible that Pratishthana must have also been a centre of trade guilds and other commercial concerns. In fact Pratishthana was the meeting place of traders from the east and the west. This is further testified by the excavated data at Paithan. And tar in Osmanabad district seems to have been another important metropolitan city where a large Roman settlement existed.

Economy, Trade and Commerce II

Dr. Fleet say, 2A study of the maps has shown the former existence of an early trade route of which well-marked traces still remain, from the east coast through Golconda or Hyderabad, Ter and Paithan to Broach. There were two starting points; one was Masulipatnam, on the eastern coast, in the northern part of the Krisna but also the sea-borne traffic from the far east2. The other starting points was probably Vinukonda, inland in the southern part of the same district, which would serve admirably as a collecting centre for the local products of the sea-side country or the south of Krisna. The roads from these two places joined each other at a point about twenty six miles towards the east by south from Hyderabad or perhaps at a point about twenty three miles further in the same direction. And from that point the single road ran in the most natural manner, through easy country viz. Hyderabad, Kalyani, ter and Paithan. We have no clear idea of the most southern routes but from the Jatakas we learn that trade were carried with Suvarndvipa. In Manimekhlai, it is mentioned that a certain Brahmana completed his pilgrimage from Kasi to Kanyakumari with his only daughter. However, a second starting point was from Kolapur. From Kolapur this road leads to Vanavasi, Chitaldurga and thence to Kanyakumari and Suvarnadvipa. Comparatively this was the less important route, because it was more or less, used for the purpose of pilgrimage. Secondly, as far as Paithan was concerned the south Indian trade centers were distantly connected because the bulk of the inland trade was dominated by the south Indian kingdom of the Pandya and Chola dynasties. Thirdly, the south Indian trading centers like Vanavasi, Kanyakumari and etc were not convenient for the merchandise of the Satavahana Empire. 

The western Routes The Western trade routes played a significant role in promoting the economic activities of the Satavahanas, as these routes were connected with the western ports which were famous for their exports to the Western countries and the inland mercantile centers like Paithan, Tagara, and Junnar etc. According to the author of the Periplus Baryagaza, Bharukccha of Junnar inscription and modern Broach was the northern most important port in the Dachinabades. He further adds that the inland commercial enterports from which streams of trade flowed to Baryagaza were Ozene, Paithan and Tagara. The caravans could reach this important western port of Bharukcchha by two natural ways. Starting from Pratishthana the way leads to broach via Ellora, Pitalkhora, Bahal and Prakash across the Tapti. And the other route followed the course of Godavari river i.e Pratishthana, Nevasa, Nasik and Broach. The Periplus notices Paithan and Tagara as the important cities of commerce in Dakhinabades. Paithan towards the south of Baryagaza from which a twenty-day journey and eastward from this about a ten-day journey is another very large city of Tagar. Below Baryagaza stood the port of Sopara, the Soupara of Ptolemy, the Supara of the Periplus, the Soparaka or Soparga of epigraphic records and modern Sopara in Thana district. And this could be reached by following the same course through Nasik and the famous Trimbak pass. The greatest port in the Western Deccan was kalyan, on the eastern shore of the Bombay harbour, the Kalina of inscriptional and the Calliene of the Periplus. From the various inscriptional records it is clear that Kalyan was a prosperous trading and industrial centre. And the approach road from Pratishthana to Kalyan passed through Junnar and Naneghat which is well known for its inscriptions of the Satavahana and other dynasties. The second important route passed through Ranjangaon, Poona, Bhaja, Karla and Kalyan. Colliena or Kalyan was the principal western port of the Andhra kingdom. Besides these there were many other important ports situated on the west coast. They were Simylla [the Symulla of Ptolemy, the Chimulo of Yuan Chwang and the Chemula of two Kanheri inscriptions, certainly the modern Chaul about twenty Five miles south of Bombay harbour. During the times of emergency i.e. when the sakas took hold of Kalyan and the other upper Western ports the Satavahanas carried their foreign trade through Chaul. And it was also linked with Paithan by the same Naneghat pass. There seemed to have been a constant struggle for supremacy over Baryagaza as noticed in several Jaina stories. The story of Satavahana of Pratishthana and Nahavahana of Baryagaza is famous in this connection. According to the same story the war between them was continued for years together and ultimately the king of Pratishthana became the master of the region by playing a trick through his minister. It is evident from the inscriptions that the Sakas closed the port of Kalyan to the Satavahanas; hence they were forced to wind such a long route to Baryagaza. From the Kanheri inscriptions of Madhariputa Sakasena and of Sri Yana Satakarni it is clear that the Sakas captured the port of Kalyan with a view to destroy the economic resource of their enemies, the Satavahanas. It may be noted that Paithan was also linked with the Trans Asiatic Route through Broach, Taxila and ultimately Gandhar. This was the less popular route as it passed through the Aravali Mountain and the dry desert of Sindh and Rajasthan. From the above discussion, it is clear that Pratishthana was the metropolitan city of great trade and commerce. Secondly, it was linked with the important trading centers and emporia all over India. Thirdly, it was the great mercantile center where the commercial articles from the southern and south eastern parts of India were accumulated and later on dispatched to the specified ports and destinations. Fourthly, it was connected with the major European countries through the western ports like Broach, Sopara, Kalyan and etc. Fifthly, it was the headquarters of a number of merchants and industrialists. Sixthly, the Satavahanas were particular about their economic activities and some of their kings tried to establish their mastery over the regions of central India. Finally, the bulk of trade through Kalyan was considerably large, and the mastery of this trade was challenged very often by the Sakas and the Ksatrapas. So Kalyan and Broach were the two great centers which augmented the Satavahana Empire. However, after the fall of the Satavahanas, we hear nothing of the economic prosperity of Paithan. It continued to be a town of consequence up to the fall of the Yadavas but unfortunately our scope in the economic activity of this region is very limited. During the periods of the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas, it once again rose to eminence with full force of economic and industrial activities. Even, it maintained the skill in the textile production up to the end of the 18th century. However, it never achieved the economic hegemony of the Satavahana period as seen from the available data. The great Chinese traveler Hieum-T’sang visited this city and mentioned its greatness as a political center during the reign of the Chalukyas of Badami. The tempora painting activities were going on during this period. And it is painted in one of the caves of Ajanta about king pulakesin 11, receiving an embassy from Persia. The texture of the painted cloth reminds us of the textile skill of Paithan. The Rashtrakuta period was marked by the creation of the Kailasa temple of Ellora. And it is mentioned in the Verulsivalaya Mahatmya that five hundred artisans from Paithan completed the said structure. And it is evident from the Mahanubhava literature that Paithan was the biggest city and it was full of its creative activities in decorative and industrial arts. After the fall of the Yadavas it again received a general setback. However, it continued in its production of Paithani up to the end of the seventeenth century. So in the field of economic activities no city other than Paithan from Maharashtra had retained its traditions. Even today the Paithan products, specially the silk sarees, are in greats demand in European countries. Now it is necessary to study the nature and scope of the industries of Paithan. 

The condition of roads and means of transport According to Travanier, Deccan was a country without roads, wheel carriages do not travel, the roads the roads being too much interrupted by high mountain, tanks and rivers and there being many narrow and difficult passes. Only oxen and packhorses were available for the conveyance of men and for the transport of goods and merchandise. Large palanquins were available in large scale. Bullock carts, chariots, horses, oxen etc were the principal means of transport. However, the author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea complaints those goods from Paithan and other places in the Deccan had to be brought to Bhroach in wagons in greats tracts without roads. These were provided by guild organizations. These organisations have been in existence since the early times. The whole of the Deccan was dotted with a net work of the guilds. 

Industrial and Commercial set-up Industry and commerce were the significant factors of economic set-up. The industries of the region were mostly connected with the agriculture products and the mineral wealth of the region. The important agriculture produce of the area was mainly cotton and hence it was no wonder if the textile industry flourished in this region. Secondly, the Godavari basin provided the mineral wealth in various forms of silica and its compounds. So it was also famous for precious stones and other such articles. Because of this mineral wealth it provided boosting in the export of precious stones and other forms of jewellery. The textile industry naturally attracted many weaverts, dyers, spinners, painters and such other skilled workers. Besides these potential products, being a capital, it attracted the architects, the carpenters, masons, planners, etc. As a religious center there was sample scope to the sculptors, perfumers, horticulturists, potters etc. From the local connection of the surface finds, it is clear that the clay industry was in a flourishing state. Secondly, the production of various types of beads was done on a very large scale. There were all types of clay industries. The area provides suitable clay and from this particular clay many articles were prepared. So generally references are made to the following professionals at Paithan. They are such as weavers[Kolikas], carpenters[Vadhokas], stone masons[Selavadhokas], stone polishers[Mithikas], jewelers[Manikaras], iron-workers[Kamaras], polishers[Tesakaras], iron mongers[Lohavanyas], goldsmiths[Suvarnakaras], potters[Kularikas], brassier[Kasakaras], fisherman[Dasa], oil pressers[Tilapisakas], fabricators of hydraulic engines[Odayantrikas],corn dealers[Dhamanikas],florists[Malakaras],artisans[Avesanis], writers[Lekhhakas], leather workers[Carmakaras] etc. Obviously there must have been followers of many other trades and professions common in any well organized society. As Paithan is famous for the production of Paithani and for the precious stones of silicon compound it is necessary to provided some more details about the same. Both of these articles formed the bulk of export material, hence they greatly contributed to the growth of economy of the region. 

Minerals From many foreign accounts it is evident that Paithan was the important center of Carnelian, Onxy, Agate and Chalcendony. We have large quantities of semi-precious stones deposited in the rocky areas of the Godavari valley. These articles of silica come under the category of precious stones which was in great demand in European countries. On the bank of Godavari the onxy or Carnelian is still found in abundance. Carnelian is a fine compound of silica and it is generally translucent red in colour. This is also known as gomeda in the vernacular language. Another variety is chalcedony, which is a beautiful mineral compound of silica, usually banded, translucent of waxy luster, generally white or bluish-white, apparently amorphous but consisting of crystalline fibers. The other form of chalcedony is known as agate and it is alternatively white opaque and grayish translucent compound. Agate was found in its variety of forms and it was used in a number of ways. It was used as an ornament, and many other useful utensil were also made out of agate. 

  Bead Industries Carnelian and agate beads, etched with different patterns are of common occurrence in India. The technique of etching is known in this country from a remote past. In 1925, Mackay showed that etched beads were an important link between the Sumerian and the Indian civilizations. However, among the early historic sites in the Deccan, Paithan and for that matter all Satavahana sites; provide a rich variety of beads, both in terracotta’s and semi-precious stones. The mention of the finds of such type of beads is made in the archaeological reports of the excavations at Paithan. So the bead industry of Paithan is the most ancient one, deriving certain techniques and traits from the Indus Valley Civilization. Generally the beads were made out of faience, agate, carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, glass, shell, stone and terracotta, etc. Typologically they can be classified into several groups. Among the faience beads there are the barrel collared, the flat collared, the Amalaka and its variants, deep or shallow incisions, one or both end flat, the granulated, the spherical, the animal shaped [generally tortoise] and the annular one. There are a large number of glass beads also but it is rather difficult to ascertain their periods. They represent a wide range of shapes and colours. The colours include white, yellow-green, red, blue, sky blue [most common], dark blue, violet, purple blue, black and orange etc. Among the glass beads there are the spherical, globular, cylinder with grooved collars, circular bi-convex, flat-barrel collared, disc-shaped, short barrel, lug collared segmented gadrooned, bi-conical hexagonal truncated, gadrooned and short cylindrical. The shell beads formed the third important factor of the collection. Because of the river basin plenty of shells are available, hence they are found in large quantity. Their shapes are identical with that of the glass beads. They are the most durable one. The other articles of the shell will be discussed in due course. As referred already, the river basin is full with shells. Naturally the shell industry formed the major factor of the trade and commerce of the region. Besides the manufacturing of the beads, bangles, ear-studs and other articles were also manufactured. The shape of the beads of the shell was identical with that of previous one. Certain weights for measuring the precious articles were also cut from these shells. 

The Etched Beads Besides the above mentioned beads, Paithan was famous for the manufacturing of the etched beads. There are three principal types of these etched beads. They are white pattern on red background, black pattern on whitened surface of the stone and the third is black pattern directly etched on the stone. The processing of etching was done with the help of certain chemicals like Potash, white lead and the juice of the Kirar bush [Capparis aphylla]. Besides these patterns the variety of decorative pattern is also available. 

The Terracotta Beads The terracotta formed an independent industry. Besides the manufacturing of beads many other articles like the bangles, the ear-ornaments, the seals, sealing pendants and rings of several types were manufactured. The bullaes and other articles were also manufactured. The kaolin figures are known for their structure and skill. The shapes of the terracotta beads were varied. The areca nut is the most common variety. The areca nut is sub-divided into three major groups and they are broad flat base with a tapering top, biconical with flat ends and with one end flat. The second popular shape was faggot. The other shapes are identical to that of glass beads. The details of the other articles have been discussed in the next chapter. 

Metal Industries Under this group come the industries of copper, iron, lead, ivory and bone. The existence of such metal industries is substantiated by the finds that are reported from Paithan. So the metal industry was an important factor of the economic activities of the city. Leather tanning was also a popular industry. 

The textile industry The textile industry is the only traditional industry that Paithan has retained, as the export of the finer varieties of cloth from this region is testified in all the available records. Cotton was produced in large quantities; cotton yarn and fine cloth are mentioned among the articles of export from Baryagaza [Bhroach] by Periplus [1st century A.D.], Marco polo [13st century A.D.], and by Travernier [15th century A.D.]. So from per plus it is evident that cotton industry was the principal industry of the region. The main canters of cotton textile industry in the Deccan were Minnagar, Paithan and Tagara. In fact the invention of cotton is a breakthrough in the histry of human civilization. Apart from their being durable and washable their use was practicable when compared to skins and barks. So also silk fibers which have been highly valued. Silk fibers are known to Indians since very remote past. We find references to silk products such as hiranyadrapi, patto, kosau, candataka, kambal, shamlya, Kshouma, Pandava, Tarpya, Karpas, etc. in ancient literature and classical works. Amazing links are to be found in the chain of historical evidence of recognized and famous costume fabrics. One can go back to Rig-Veda for the golden woven fabric-hiranyadrapi, to the epic period for the pearl fringed fabric-Manichira-the fine cottons of Ganjam-Mysore and the Karnatak, to the Jaina authorities for Indian silks Patto, to the gorgeous Paithanis from the great ancient trading and industrial centre, Pratishthana or Paithan, figuring in the early records of Greece [2nd century B.C]. So according to Periplus, Paithan was an important centre of textiles industry. India has every reason to be proud of her artistic handmade fabrics. These special artistic textiles are not the result of modern development. As mentioned earlier, their existence can be traced back to thousands of years almost up to the early periods of history. It is amazing how the crafts have survived the ravages of time and the impact of political changes, often of a radical nature. Indian textiles of greats merit have reigned supreme in world markets for well nigh two thousand years. The art of fine weaving, the varied processes of printing and dyeing and the arts of had and loom embroideries were perfected by our people even when conditions of work were different and difficult. The crafts were mostly hereditary. The qualities required of true artisans were apprenticeship, devotion to duty and co-operative effort. The knowledge of the arts and crafts was imparted by father to son; the business too passed from father to son and general competitions was eliminated by means of co-operative guilds. Today also Paithani sarees completely capture the female hearts not only in India but also outside India. Paithani is the name given to the high class silken golden embroidered saris. These sarees can also be fringed with pearls or precious stones. As stated above, the process of weaving was rather complicated. But the traditionally skilled workers have shown their adeptness as the details of weaving process would show. 

The process of weaving of Paithani The process may be divided into four separate but interdependent stages. They are :[1] Silk winding, [2] Gold and silver wiring and threading, [3] Dyeing and [4] Designing. Out of these the process of gold and silver threading and designing is rather difficult and complicated, as it requires more skill and tenacity. In local usage weaving is known as ‘Tana and Bana’. The Paithani industry was so flourishing that it provided work to the entire habitation of the city. This is evident from the names of the inhabitants who did dyeing and bleaching work. The area of ‘Tarali’ i.e. a locality where silver was transferred into thread is named after the profession. The area of ‘Jargali’ i.e. the place where the silver wire was wound with silk is named after that job. There is yet another place called ‘Pavata’ where a big machine for making gold and silver threads was placed. The area of ‘Salivada’ is a place where the salis [the weavers] dwelt. The names of certain families also indicate that they were previously associated with the manufacture of Paithanis. For example ‘pavata’, the family working with the Pavata, Lagade, and the family associated with melting the metals, ‘Chapade’, the family associated with preparation of the bars of the metals of specified weight. So Paithani textiles formed an important part of the entire industrial activities of town. It dominated not only the native market, but also attracted the international textiles market. This is evident from the fact that this Paithani style, especially the border designs has been freely borrowed in the fabrics of the Deccan group, what are known as ‘the pharaspati and the Indori’ border which are the further development of the Paithani style. The Paithani saris suggest pomp and glory and are offered to a bride in the marriage ceremony. Until the period of the Yadavas, it was one of the important articles of export. After the fall of the Yadavas the textile industry received a set-back. It is mentioned that a Siddharaja of Anhilwada, being jealous about the prosperity of the Yadavas, attacked Paithan and forcibly took five hundred families of the expert weavers from Paithan. Thus the industrial art was carried to Gujarat. Now Surat is an important centre of silk and jari industries. However, when the Bahamnis established their hold on this city, they tried to revive the traditional industry of Paithan. The Paithani production was further enlarged which included the production of Kimkhab, Mashru and Himroo patterns. Kimkhab, Mashru and Himroo are the popular pattern of the Muslims. This is evident from the account of the Persian Ambassador who visited the kutubshahi of Golkonda in 1603 A.D. According to him the Kimkhab or gold cloth made at paithan become illustrious throughout the Deccan. It was in great demand and sold at fantastic prices. He took with him, amongst other presents, a piece of Kimkhab the manufacture of which took five years for the weavers of Paithan. The work is exceeding complicated and difficult and hence the workmen were highly paid. The work is chiefly carried on the ground floors. This is the reason why a provision of ground floor to every house of a kimkhab and Paithani merchant was made. The merchants were generally Muslims or Arabs. Even now the houses of Ala-Kuli, Koldi-Kash, Kala-pahad and Ali-Chausa remind us of the prosperity of the city. Though they are situated in the most crowded part of the city, sufficient provision was made for the fabrication of these textiles. The second variety is mixed cotton and silk fabric generally known as ‘Mashru’. It is specially an Islamic contribution to the existing exotic varieties that the Deccan had produced. This is generally used by the native ladies as inner garments. The term ‘Mashru’ is derived from ‘Shara’ meaning ‘allowable in law’. The material is so called because the mixture of cotton with silk makes it acceptable for men to put on while offering prayers. The wearing of pure silk during prayers was prohibited by the prophet. The second variety similar to mashru is known as ‘Himroo’. The texture of it is almost as fine as muslin. It is used for veils, head dresses, bridal robes and saris by the wealthier classes. But today the production of both these articles has practically disappeared from Paithan. Besides these textiles, Paithan was also famous for the manufacture of embroidered muslin, brocades and dopattas. Paithan also acted as an important mart where the goods from the vast countryside were marketed. Some of the products were undoubtedly expored to foreign countries mostly in the west. 

The Sarthavaha The Sarthavahas were a kind of cooperative organization in the field of trade and commerce. The cooperation was necessary, because of the insecurity of the roads, the long distance, the robbers, the hostile tribesmen and such other obstacles due to which they [the caravan dealers] could not reach safely to their destination. Generally the trade routes of our region passed through the famous mountain Satpura and Vindhya where the traders individually could be no match for the bands of the robbers. They could only oppose, when they were united in a body. Hence they untied themselves in a body known as Sarthavaha. This type of organization of mercantile classes was brought into existence by a similar process even in earlier periods of Indian history. Corporate activity was a common feature of the economic system in the Vedic and post-Vedic periods. The word ‘Sresthi’ and ‘gana’ were referred in the Vedic literature. Sresthin denotes the head-man of a guild. These organizations were current during the Sarthavahas and the post- Sarthavahas also. So different merchants carrying goods combined together and traveled under a captain called Sarthavaha who had a thorough knowledge of the trade routes and directed the merchants as regards the routes to be followed, places for halting for rest places where rivers should be crossed, and the danger spots to be avoided. There was also another officer called Thala-Niyamaka or land pilot who was also helpful to the caravans in avoiding the dangers and difficulties of travel. Some of the big trade organizations had their own armed force to protect the caravan from the robbers. 

Guilds Practically all the different branches of occupation [i.e. traders, moneylenders, artisans, cultivators, herdsman, weavers, jewelers, dyers etc.] had some sort of definite organization. The particular term used to denote the corporation of tradesmen or mechanics is ‘Sreni’. So ‘Sreni’ is the organization of person’s carrying the same profession despite their castes. This organization corresponds to that of the ‘Guilds’ in the medieval Europe. They [Guilds] are generally eighteen in number. A large number of inscriptions of different periods refer to a number of guilds. There are carpenters [including different types of wood work], workers in metal [gold, silver and copper], workers in stone, leather, ivory fabricating hydraulic engines [odayantrika seni ], bamboo [vasakara], brasiera [kasakara], jewellers, weavers, potters, oilmillers [Tilapisaka], dyers, fisher folk, painters, corn-dealers [dhammaika], cultivators, garland makers [malakaras] and flower sellers, mariners, herdsmen, traders, robbers and freebooters, moneylenders and forest police who guarded the caravans. As mentioned already, Paithan was the centre of many industries and as one of the collecting centers of the Satavahana Empire, it was certainly associated with these srenis or guilds. Secondly, formerly it was a capital and the heads of the important guilds enjoyed the posts of honors in the state administration, because the heads were generally the favorites of the kings. Thirdly, it was situated on the important Sarthavaha-path; hence it served as a centre of halting for rest. It also provided a large market place; hence generally the Sarthavaha had a considerable stay and exchange of goods at this place. The guilds of the artisans and the gandhikas are mentioned in various inscriptions. The weaver guild was the basic organization of the region. The guilds were autonomous bodies having their own rules, regulations and bye-laws. The had a sanction by the state. The chief executive officer was called Adhyakas or Mukhyas or Sresthin. They were assisted by committees of various members. Disputes among the members were settled by their own executive. Generally the office of Bhandgarika [treasurer or the superintendent of the state] carried with it the judgeship of all the merchant guilds. Paithan beings a capitals, might be the headquarter of the Bhandgarika. So the Srenis [or guilds] enjoyed great reputation for their honesty and fair dealing. Inscriptions show that perpetual endowments were made with them. They received cash deposits and endowments of property and undertook to spend income from them in a specified manner. The guilds also functioned as the local banks and provided the monetary assistance to the concerned organisation. Hence the guilds played a significant role in promoting trades and crafts of the region. The guilds had also much social importance like the caste organisation. Though the caste organisation had its origins in occupational differentiation, it developed into a social organization, membership in which was determined by birth. A guild, on the other hand was essentially an economic corporation. The membership is given without the criteria of caste or creed. In the local collection there are certain clay seals. They throw further interesting sidelights on the guilds organization of the period. But the legends are uncertain. Therefore, we are unable to affix them with current dynasty with any certainty. Out of the three seals, two bear the figure of elephant and the third is inscribed with the letters A.U.M. 

Foreign Trade Western Indian ports and towns played a dominant part in promoting trade and commerce with the Greece-Roman world in the early centuries of the Christian era. There was a network of trade routes and inland waterways which convulged at several important sea ports on the West Coast. Such an economic phenomenon prevailed for over a period of 800 years (200 B.C to 600A.D.) It was during this period that many towns and cities in Western India and also elsewhere in the country sprang up and became prosperous due to the trade. Their trading contacts with the Western world were wide ranging and included countries such as Persia, Egypt, Greece and Rome, almost comprising the whole of Greece-Helenstic world. Against the background, the economic role played by Paithan is being viewed. Many references are found in Pauranic and Buddhist literature regarding the flourishing condition of these areas in the early centuries of the Christian era. The political and cultural unity under the Satavahanas of the Deccan and the Kusanas of Western India greatly contributed to the growth of trade and commerce within the country and outside as well. They are further supplemented by the narrative of the maritime travelers and geographers of the Egyptian and western world, particularly of Greece-Roman world, who have made interesting observations regarding India. To mention a few in chronological order; they are such as Strabo, Pliny, Tactus, Ptolemy, the author of the Peutinger Tables, and the Revenue Geographer. However, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea is more detailed and trustworthy, for it gives a clear and comprehensive outline of Rome’s remarkable commerce with the East. Most of them lived in the first and second centuries. The political and economic condition of western India was certainly conducive to trade and commerce during the centuries under discussion. If western India had such a large number of thriving ports on its coast and emporia’s in its interior [as evidence by the writings of the author of periplus and Ptolemy, if foreign merchants came there for trade at considerable risk of pirates, and if there was so much sea-faring enterprise among the people of this country, the conclusion is irresistible that this whole region was one of prosperity, industrially developed and agriculturally advanced. All the evidences, literary, numismatic, inscriptional, and descriptive accounts of the foreign travelers are repleted with reference to sea-borne trade with Western India. The two capital cities that dominated the history of the time were Pratishthana, the chief city of the Satavahanas and Ujjain, that of the Western Ksatrapas. And these capitals were linked with the inland market towns such as Tagara, Junnar, Karnataka, Nasik, Govardhana, Vaijayanti, Brahmipuri, Nevada etc. The excavated objects from Baroda, Maheshvar-Navadatoli, Prakash, Bahal, Nasik, Nevasa, Brahmapuri, Kondapur etc. substance our view point. The description in the inscriptions from Nasik, Karle, Kuda, Bhaja and Besdsa testify to the vast quantity of merchandise imported and the variety of products exported. Onxy stones in profuse quantities from Paithan and Ujjain, ordinary cottons and coloured cottons and other articles of local production from Tagara and other southern regions figure in the account. 

  Exports and imports Periplus refers to the articles of exports and imports through the western ports such as Baryagaza, Kalyan and Sopara. Among the exports there were onxy, carnelian, agate, lyceum, ivory, silk-cloth, copper, spilkenard, butter ghee, silk- thread, legs of ebony, honey, ordinary cottons, coloured cottons and such other things. These were collected from various market towns. These was brought by ‘waggons and through great tracts either to Kalyan-Sopara or to Broach. Among the imports, there were Italian and Arabian mines copper, tin, lead, antimony, gold and silver, coral, topaz, clothes of different varieties, storax, sweet clover, flint-glass and realgar. We are also told that for the sake of Saka Satrapa many luxurious articles such as costly vessels of silver, fine wines, beautiful maidens for the harem, very fine cloth and choicest ointments were imported. The balance of trade was in favour of India and Pliny rightly remarked about the extravagancy of the Roman Empire which drained its finances because of their over addiction to oriental luxuries. He says that India, China and Arabia absorbed between them one hundred million Sesterces per annum. This sum is calculated by Mommsen to represent 2 1, 1000,000 of which nearly half went to India. One of the fashionable extravagances immensely stimulated the Indian trade. Thus much of the prosperity of the region was due to trade and commerce. The high standard of living and luxury of town life described in ‘Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra’ and represent in sculptures and paintings were well to do and their professional skill was of a high order. This is amply illustrated by the excellent workmanship found in architecture of art. This is evident from the inscriptions of Sanchi and Pitalkhora. On the southern gateway of the great stupa at Sanchi there is an inscription recording a gift of one of its architraves by Anand, ‘a son of Vasithi’ the foreman of the artisans [avesanim] of Raja Siri Satakarni. The benedictions of a Gandhika family from Paithan are recorded on one of the Pitalkhora caves. The prosperity of the region can also be evidence from the paintings at Ajanta. In one of the caves, king Pulakesin ll’s court scene is represented. The intercourse between the western worlds had naturally influenced the Indian society. The abundance of foreign culture material in Indian historical sites shows that central and western India contained centers of industry manufacturing a variety of products from beads and gems to clothing. Quite a large number of inscriptions in Western India caves mention ‘Yavanas as residents of the country and as patrons of Buddhism’. They may have been Greek citizens or Indian traders with Greek affiliation. Secondly the Indians have adopted the new western Technique in the manufacture of pottery and other antiquities. The evidence of this adoption is significant from the antiquities found in the excavations at these important trade centers such as Ter, Nevasa, Prakash, Baroda, Nagarjunakonda, and etc. On the other hand there is no reason to account for the occurrence of Greeco-Roman antiquities in such variety at these important trade centers. the contacts From the above discussion it is clear that Paithan played a dominant role in promoting the inland and the foreign trade during the period of the Satavahanas. This is further evidence by literacy, numismatic and archeological evidences recorded at Paithan. It is recorded in the annals of Roman History, that the news of the accession of Augustus quickly reached India. Many Indian states sent embassies to congratulate him. The most stinking one was sent by Porus. The Porus has been identified with Satavahanas king Pulumavi, who sent his embassy from the well-known capital city of Paithan. A Roman silver coin of Tiberius [14-37 A.D] has been discovered at Paithan. A number of blaked clay imitations of Roman coins, perhaps made from moulds, have hooks at the top for hanging round the neck as amulets have been discovered in large number. They are the rough copies of the coins of Tiberius. There are some of the glass-beads containing gold foil and certain features of western influence in the local collection at Paithan. As mentioned already, Paithan was an important bead manufacturing centre. And than it would have direct contacts with the western markets of the Mediterranean, Greece, Rome and the coasts of Egypt and Arabia. Among pottery types there are pieces of Roman amphorae consisting of base-portions, some shreds of red polished ware, certain terracotta figurines including the head of boy with foreign features and stone seals of a lady having western influence, all are indicative of Paithan’s intimate association with western countries. Among the Kaolin-finds there is a lion of Egyptian style. Besides this, it has been conclusively proved that there was a colony of Roman settlement at Ter. Ter was directly connected with Paithan and it would be no wonder if we presume that the Roman traders were equally familiar with Paithan. So the above references confirm the contacts between the western world and Paithan.