Economy, Trade and Commerce I

Economic conditions play a significant role in determining the cultural Progress of a particular geographical unit. 2History of civilization clearly Demonstrates that periods of cultural florescence have always been periods of plenty and prosperity because unless elementary needs of existence are provided there will not be any effort towards culture progress2 .In India the river basins have always helped the development of the culture of the region. The fertile regions along the banks of great rivers like the Indus, the Ganges, the Narmada, the Tapti, the Krisna, and the Tungabhandra etc have always been noted for their material prosperity which has afforded the people of these river basins enough leisure and resources to pursue culture achievement. The Godavari basin is not an exception to the general rule. As noticed already, paithan is situated on the bank of the river Godavari. The basins of Godavari are noted for its fertility since ages. So also Paithan is noted for its agricultural products since the dawn of Godavari valley Civilization. The economic life of the people of this region was governed by the laws and sanctions lay down by the Dharma-Sastras and other religious traditions. The early Dharma-Sastras regarded agriculture, trade and industry as undesirable professions. Manu characterized them as pramrite [“what caused death”] and Satyanrita [mixture of truth and falsefood] and therefore they were capable of running families. While Brihaspati condemned the wealth earned by these professions, theBudhist and the Jain Canonical laws also neglected these professions with disfavour.

Therefore, while prescribing the professions for different castes, the Dharma-Sastras prohibited agriculture, trade and industry to the upper classes. The Brahmanas were expected to devote themselves to spiritual and intellectual pursuits while the krhatriyas were asked to indulge in war and politics. However, the Vaisyas were to take to productive occupations and the Sudras were asked to live on agriculture, trade, handicrafts, cattle breeding etc. To this general convention an exception of Apadharma [in times of extreme crisis] was provided for. And in India, the free choice of occupation was limited by the rigid caste system. The factors determining the economic prosperity The economic development of the region is conditioned by several factors. Firstly, the economic life of the people was largely based on the physical background of region. Secondly, since the dawn of history, Indian economy is based on agricultural products. Thus India2s socio-economic base has been oriented towards agriculture. Consequently the majority of the people were always engaged on land. Agriculture had provided the base for taxation .Even today the land revenue is the main source of Indian economy. Thirdly, it was trade and commerce which produced economic surplus for it is wealth that begets wealth. Fourthly, the political stability provides the bases of sound economic system. Fifthly, in ancient times religion played a vital role in the process of economics growth. The political Patronage and the religious sanctions had accelerated the economic progress. An attempt is made here to describe how Paithan had all the required facilities and how it became an important trade centre of international reputation. Agriculture Agriculture has been the main occupation of the people of this region. As noticed already good lands with fertile soil, plentiful water supply and agreeable climate made this area as the granary of the district. This fact is evidenced by the various excavations done so far. Again the mode of construction of houses which consist of a large underground godown supports and method of storage. These godowns are being used as seasonal storehouses. Pre – Satavahana period Our knowledge of the extent of the technique and method of cultivation during the pre-Satavahana period is very limited. Pratishthana was a developed centre having agriculture as their main source of livelihood. Even the stories of Aryanisation confirm the above facts. The Aryan clans which migrated from the northen India and those well acquainted with the river side agriculture preferred this particular fertile basin of Godavari. With great efforts they successfully managed their plantation and settled themselves in this particular area. The name Pratishthana is suggestive of the fact. During the period of Aryanization, there was a great need to bring more lands under cultivation and hence every encouragement was given to achieve the result. The individual who cleared the forest and took steps to extend the area of cultivation was given a right to enjoy the fruits of his efforts. According to Manu, 2the field belonged to him who cleared away the timber and the deer to him who just wounded it2. Manu and Gautama suggest that giving separate households for brothers would result in better religious merit. All these were intended to promote individual ownership of land so that the landlords could develop personal interest in cultivation. As noticed already, pratishthana was the capital of the Janapadas like Mulaka, Asmaka and Petenika. Being a capital it served as the center of trade and commerce. During the periods the nature of commerce was rather primitive and mainly based on barter system. Thus we may conclude that the region is known for its fertility from the earliest times. As it was a center of surplus production it gave boosting to trade and commerce. The political patronage added to its commercial values. Agriculture under the Satavahanas The advent of the Satavahanas to power opened a new chapter in the economic history of Paithan. By issuing a number of land grants to the worthy cultivators they tried to promote cultivation. The earliest epigraphical evidence to this effect can be had from the Managua record where the grant of a village was recorded. The gifted lands were exempted from revenue. This is again evident from the warning issued to the royal officers by Gautamiputra. Again it was expected that the granted land should be well cultivated otherwise the concerned village would not be settled. The landholdings seem to have been moderate ranging from two to forty Nivartanas. A Nivartana is equal to one and a half acre. However, certain holdings were big to the extent of 100 Nivartanas. From this it is evident that the process of fragmentation of land was popular. But it was checked by the joint family system. However, the growing density of population in fertile river regions also added the strength to the tendency for fragmentation of land. Thus the scope for the formation of large agriculture Holding was limited. Type of agriculture products From Gathasaptasati of Hala it is evidenced that Charu [rice] was produced on large scale. Wheat, Javar and cotton were the common crops. Besides, these there were the mustard seeds, the pulses [the gram], the nuts [groundnuts] and the oil seeds etc. Post – Satvahana periods Agriculture continued to be the basic industry during the post- Satavahana period. This can be evident from the various charters issued in connection with the grants of land by the various succeeding dynasties. The grants are as follows: Vakatakas The Poona plates of prabhavatigupta mentions the grants of village Danguna to the Acharya Chanala Svami, a Brahamana of Paithan. The donated village was situated in the Sapratishthita-ahara. The Jamba plates of Pravarsena-|| mentions the grant of a village kotharukagrama of Sapratishthita-ahara and the donee was Kalutaka, the Brahmana pandita. The Wadegaon Plates of Pravarsena-|| mentions the grant of 400 Nivartanas of land of the of the village valusuka of Sapratishthita-ahara .unfortunately we have no reference from the Chalukya dynasty. However , we may presume that under Chalukyas Agriculture was in a flourishing condition. Rashtrakutas The Sinar Charter of Dhruva records a gift of a village ‘Brihat-Pushkarika’ of Pratishthana division to a Brahmana ‘Vardjana’. The Paithan plates of govinda lll records the grant of a village Limbarmika from pratishthana Bhukti to a number of a Braminas from Paithan. The Copper plates of India lll register a gift of a village Khairondi from pratishthana division. Yadavas The Paithan plates of the Yadav king Ramchandra record of a gift of a gift of Vanthangrama from the Seundesa division. The donated village and the surrounding villages which were mentioned in the copper plates were from Paithan jurisdiction. So from the above evidences it is clear that agriculture was the main industry during these periods. Generally land was divided into three different categories: the land of the king (Mahipati), the land owner [Svami], and the cultivator [Krishika]. This is more or less confirmed by Brihaspati who makes it clear that landowner [Svami] occupied an intermediate position between the king and the actual tiller of the soil. Viewed from the above discussion, it is clear that the agriculture system of the region was entirely based on the monsoon. The Indian monsoon is known for its variety of moods. Besides facing the moods of the changing monsoons the agriculture have to face the natural calamities like draughts and floods. Famine is a common factor the Indian economy and every decade is marked by a famine. The famine of 1467 A.D was the most severe one because it lasted for seven continuous years. It was believed that the malevolence of the goddess ‘Durga’ was the root cause of that natural calamity. It is also known as the famine of Durgadi. Because of the continuity of the famine the entire economy was ruined and the centers of Sanskrit learning were shattered. During this famine, many learned Brahmanas migrated to Kashi. Among them the Bhatt families were prominent ones. All the Vatanas [i.e. the land gifts to a reputed person] were ruined. The temples were also ruined and the population was scattered. So the famine of 1467 A.D inflicted a severe blow which distributed the traditional city from its rich inheritance. As noted already, the Bahamani layer, from the paithan excavations was discovered to be filled with mud and silt. Then it would be no wonder, if he [the common farmer] was made to feel that his sufferings or happiness was the fruit of a divine malevolence or benevolence. And only for this reason, he felt convinced that without the grace of God, his personal efforts would be of no value and the best things would be the absolute submission to the desires of the Almighty. Thus the nature and the structure of the agriculture economy, in which more than ninety percent population was engaged, compelled the farmer to be religious- minded. And it is rather striking that the religious centers like Paithan were enriched by the offerings, those were made by the poor peasants who wanted to escape from their traditional sufferings. He came there with the hope to lead a comfortable life and the clever priests convinced him to be hopeful forever. If we compare the hardships of the farmers of other than river basin, the common peasants of this region were better placed and well contented. And because of the contented life they were attracted towards such centers. Trade and Commerce Paithan seems to have been an important centre of trade and commerce even during the pr- satavahana period. The arthasatras of kautily gives some information regarding the volume of the trade of the south in the age of early Mauryan empire. Although it was deficient in woollen cloth, hides and horses , Daksinapatha abounds in counch shells, diamonds , precious stones, pearls and articles of gold. Moreover, the southern trade routes across Daksinapatha traverse a territory rich in mines and valuable merchandise, is frequented by many and easy to travel by. And from the Buddhist literature it is evident that Pratishthana was the great capital city and centre of great commercial activities. The emergence of the Satavahanas totally transformed the facet of Pratishthana centre. It enjoyed the commercial status in those days just as any commercial place in modern times . Hence during the times of the satavahanas, paithan attained a status of great international reputation. There was very brisk and wide-spread inland trade because of the prosperity of the region. This is testified by the Greek travelers and geographers. According to them, there were a number of market towns along the west part of the Deccan plateau like Paithan. Tagara, Junnar, Nasik etc. Being the capital city and a town of great consequence it was well linked with the other trading centres and ports on the eastern and western coast lines. So it is necessary to study the role played by Paithan as an important trading centre. Trade routes As noted above, Paithan was linked with the important political and commercial centers of the whole of India. This fact is evident from various stories of the Jatakas and of the Jaina literature. The description of the trade routes may be studied thus: Northern Routes The Vindhya and Satpura ranges separate the North India from the South. Because of the deserts of Kachha and Rajasthan, generally the northern-routes passed through Malva and Avanti. Naturally they cut across the valleys such as Narmada, Tapti and also the Ganges. Out of these routes the Pratishthana-Sravasti route was probably the oldest one. It is referred to in the Baveru-Jataka, where Baveru asked his disciples to follow the Sravasti- Pratishthana path with its six intermediate halts and frequent river crossings [Pratishthana-Mahishmati-Ujjain-Gandhara-Vidisa-Kosambi and Sravasti]. Again one route leads from Kosambi to Patiliputra and the next to Agra and Mathura and from Mathura the third leads to Indraprastha, Taxila, Gandhara, Balkha and from thence to the centers of the Inter continental central Asiatic routes. The route from Pratishthana to North India generally passed through the region of Ajanta hills [Markhinda] which are famous for its Buddhist caves and paintings and Bhogavardhana, a contemporary Janapada. The next important intermediary halt was the city of Burhanpur, adjoining the Tapti valley and the Satpura Mountain. The next halt Mahishmati, a famous ancient city, was situated at such a strategical point that both the ranges of Satpura [Saindva pass] and Vindhya [Gujari pass] meet in a point. The next halts were Ujjain and Vidisa. The supremacy of the Satavahanas over this region is testified by the Bhilasa epigraph. Thus the northen routes were important as they linked the southern metropolitan cities with the north Indian and Central Asiatic trading centres. Through there were much hardships while crossing the mountains and the rivers it was the safest and surest way because it avoided the hazards of sea voyage. Thus the whole of the northen India was commercially linked up with Pratishthana, the famous capital of the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas were very particular about their trade and commerce. There special interest in this context is evident from the following Jaina accounts. According to the Jaina tradition, once Salivahana asked his commander- in- chief to conquer Mathura. The commander- in- chief immediately left on an expedition. However, he did not dare to ask the king about the location of the city of Mathura that was to be conquered. Hence he conquered both the Mathuras [i.e. north as well as south Mathura]. Thus the story is suggestive of the over lordship of the Satavahanas on the said region, would safeguard their commercial interest with the foreign countries. Again the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva confirms the trade contacts between Pratishthana and the North Indian centres. It is mentioned that Dharma, a feudal lord travelled from Deccan to Malva and Sangramadatta was said to have carried gold on a camel back from Pratishthana to Patiliputra. Moreover, the Pratishthana-Ujjain route was marked by certain interesting intermediary centres. Firstly, there were certain ancient Janapadas like Bhogavardhana along the route. Secondly, the world famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora lay on it. The Buddhist rock cut caves and the paintings of Ajanta are famous since that time. The northen route from Ujjain, after crossing the river Narmada and proceeding towards modern Burhanpur came to the ancient town Bahal from where the caravans either went to south towards Pratishthana or west to Nasik. The famous caves of Ajanta, Pitalkhora and Aurangabad lay on the Bahal- Pratishthana route. The most strategic intermediate halt on the northern route was Ujjain or Avanti which was the most ancient town of India. And the acquisition of Ujjain by the Satavahanas was a matter of pride and prestige. The over lordship of the Satavahanas on city of Ujjain can be evidenced through a number of Jain stories. A certain Jaina Acharya freed his sister from the unlawful imprisonment by a king of foreign dynasty with the help of the help of the king, Satavahana. And it is evident that the sakas and Ksatrapass were alien to this region and Gautamiputra satakarni not only defeated the sakas and the ksatrapas but had exterminated them from the Indian soil. The restruck coins by Gautamiputra satakarni prove it beyond doubt. Again the sanchi epigraphs confirm the said fact. The southern Routes The Southern- Routes were directly connected with Paithan. Paithan’s connections with southern areas were of a different nature when compared to the north. It was due to the fact that their empire extended from West coast to East coast. Further, the entire trade from the ports likes Masula on the East coast and the islands centers such as kondapur and Tagara was directly connected with Pratishthana. It is possible that Pratishthana must have also been a centre of trade guilds and other commercial concerns. In fact Pratishthana was the meeting place of traders from the east and the west. This is further testified by the excavated data at Paithan. And tar in Osmanabad district seems to have been another important metropolitan city where a large Roman settlement existed.