Question paper of 2009 exam of FYBA

PAPER OF 2009 HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION Maharashtra Culture Up to 1818 A.D. (General Paper – I)(2008 Pattern)
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 80 Instructions: 

1) All questions are compulsory. 

2) Figures to the right indicate full marks. 

Q1. Answer the following questions in 50 words each: (any two) …….… [10] 

i) Concept of Konkan? 

ii) Gaongada (Village community)? 

iii) Ajanta Paintings? 

iv) Define ‘Cave’? 

Q2. Write note on, in 100 words each: (any four) ……...… [20] 

i) Salient features of Maharashtra Culture. 

ii) Yadavas of Devagiri. 

iii) History of Marathi language. 

iv) Demerits of Caste System. 

v) Industries in Medieval Maharashtra. 

vi) Temple Architecture. 

Q3. Answer the following question in 200 – 250 words each: (any three) ….. [30] 

i) Discuss the types of ‘Culture’. 

ii) Explain the position of women in Maharashtra culture. 

iii) What do you know about the Agriculture in Medieval Maharashtra? 

iv) State the type of forts? 

v) Write the festivals and ceremonies in Maharashtra. 

Q4. Answer the following question in 500 words each: (any one) …..…. [20] 

i) Take a review of the literature in Medieval Maharashtra. 

ii) Write an essay on ‘Bhakti cult’. 

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Economy, Trade and Commerce I

Economic conditions play a significant role in determining the cultural Progress of a particular geographical unit. 2History of civilization clearly Demonstrates that periods of cultural florescence have always been periods of plenty and prosperity because unless elementary needs of existence are provided there will not be any effort towards culture progress2 .In India the river basins have always helped the development of the culture of the region. The fertile regions along the banks of great rivers like the Indus, the Ganges, the Narmada, the Tapti, the Krisna, and the Tungabhandra etc have always been noted for their material prosperity which has afforded the people of these river basins enough leisure and resources to pursue culture achievement. The Godavari basin is not an exception to the general rule. As noticed already, paithan is situated on the bank of the river Godavari. The basins of Godavari are noted for its fertility since ages. So also Paithan is noted for its agricultural products since the dawn of Godavari valley Civilization. The economic life of the people of this region was governed by the laws and sanctions lay down by the Dharma-Sastras and other religious traditions. The early Dharma-Sastras regarded agriculture, trade and industry as undesirable professions. Manu characterized them as pramrite [“what caused death”] and Satyanrita [mixture of truth and falsefood] and therefore they were capable of running families. While Brihaspati condemned the wealth earned by these professions, theBudhist and the Jain Canonical laws also neglected these professions with disfavour.

Therefore, while prescribing the professions for different castes, the Dharma-Sastras prohibited agriculture, trade and industry to the upper classes. The Brahmanas were expected to devote themselves to spiritual and intellectual pursuits while the krhatriyas were asked to indulge in war and politics. However, the Vaisyas were to take to productive occupations and the Sudras were asked to live on agriculture, trade, handicrafts, cattle breeding etc. To this general convention an exception of Apadharma [in times of extreme crisis] was provided for. And in India, the free choice of occupation was limited by the rigid caste system. The factors determining the economic prosperity The economic development of the region is conditioned by several factors. Firstly, the economic life of the people was largely based on the physical background of region. Secondly, since the dawn of history, Indian economy is based on agricultural products. Thus India2s socio-economic base has been oriented towards agriculture. Consequently the majority of the people were always engaged on land. Agriculture had provided the base for taxation .Even today the land revenue is the main source of Indian economy. Thirdly, it was trade and commerce which produced economic surplus for it is wealth that begets wealth. Fourthly, the political stability provides the bases of sound economic system. Fifthly, in ancient times religion played a vital role in the process of economics growth. The political Patronage and the religious sanctions had accelerated the economic progress. An attempt is made here to describe how Paithan had all the required facilities and how it became an important trade centre of international reputation. Agriculture Agriculture has been the main occupation of the people of this region. As noticed already good lands with fertile soil, plentiful water supply and agreeable climate made this area as the granary of the district. This fact is evidenced by the various excavations done so far. Again the mode of construction of houses which consist of a large underground godown supports and method of storage. These godowns are being used as seasonal storehouses. Pre – Satavahana period Our knowledge of the extent of the technique and method of cultivation during the pre-Satavahana period is very limited. Pratishthana was a developed centre having agriculture as their main source of livelihood. Even the stories of Aryanisation confirm the above facts. The Aryan clans which migrated from the northen India and those well acquainted with the river side agriculture preferred this particular fertile basin of Godavari. With great efforts they successfully managed their plantation and settled themselves in this particular area. The name Pratishthana is suggestive of the fact. During the period of Aryanization, there was a great need to bring more lands under cultivation and hence every encouragement was given to achieve the result. The individual who cleared the forest and took steps to extend the area of cultivation was given a right to enjoy the fruits of his efforts. According to Manu, 2the field belonged to him who cleared away the timber and the deer to him who just wounded it2. Manu and Gautama suggest that giving separate households for brothers would result in better religious merit. All these were intended to promote individual ownership of land so that the landlords could develop personal interest in cultivation. As noticed already, pratishthana was the capital of the Janapadas like Mulaka, Asmaka and Petenika. Being a capital it served as the center of trade and commerce. During the periods the nature of commerce was rather primitive and mainly based on barter system. Thus we may conclude that the region is known for its fertility from the earliest times. As it was a center of surplus production it gave boosting to trade and commerce. The political patronage added to its commercial values. Agriculture under the Satavahanas The advent of the Satavahanas to power opened a new chapter in the economic history of Paithan. By issuing a number of land grants to the worthy cultivators they tried to promote cultivation. The earliest epigraphical evidence to this effect can be had from the Managua record where the grant of a village was recorded. The gifted lands were exempted from revenue. This is again evident from the warning issued to the royal officers by Gautamiputra. Again it was expected that the granted land should be well cultivated otherwise the concerned village would not be settled. The landholdings seem to have been moderate ranging from two to forty Nivartanas. A Nivartana is equal to one and a half acre. However, certain holdings were big to the extent of 100 Nivartanas. From this it is evident that the process of fragmentation of land was popular. But it was checked by the joint family system. However, the growing density of population in fertile river regions also added the strength to the tendency for fragmentation of land. Thus the scope for the formation of large agriculture Holding was limited. Type of agriculture products From Gathasaptasati of Hala it is evidenced that Charu [rice] was produced on large scale. Wheat, Javar and cotton were the common crops. Besides, these there were the mustard seeds, the pulses [the gram], the nuts [groundnuts] and the oil seeds etc. Post – Satvahana periods Agriculture continued to be the basic industry during the post- Satavahana period. This can be evident from the various charters issued in connection with the grants of land by the various succeeding dynasties. The grants are as follows: Vakatakas The Poona plates of prabhavatigupta mentions the grants of village Danguna to the Acharya Chanala Svami, a Brahamana of Paithan. The donated village was situated in the Sapratishthita-ahara. The Jamba plates of Pravarsena-|| mentions the grant of a village kotharukagrama of Sapratishthita-ahara and the donee was Kalutaka, the Brahmana pandita. The Wadegaon Plates of Pravarsena-|| mentions the grant of 400 Nivartanas of land of the of the village valusuka of Sapratishthita-ahara .unfortunately we have no reference from the Chalukya dynasty. However , we may presume that under Chalukyas Agriculture was in a flourishing condition. Rashtrakutas The Sinar Charter of Dhruva records a gift of a village ‘Brihat-Pushkarika’ of Pratishthana division to a Brahmana ‘Vardjana’. The Paithan plates of govinda lll records the grant of a village Limbarmika from pratishthana Bhukti to a number of a Braminas from Paithan. The Copper plates of India lll register a gift of a village Khairondi from pratishthana division. Yadavas The Paithan plates of the Yadav king Ramchandra record of a gift of a gift of Vanthangrama from the Seundesa division. The donated village and the surrounding villages which were mentioned in the copper plates were from Paithan jurisdiction. So from the above evidences it is clear that agriculture was the main industry during these periods. Generally land was divided into three different categories: the land of the king (Mahipati), the land owner [Svami], and the cultivator [Krishika]. This is more or less confirmed by Brihaspati who makes it clear that landowner [Svami] occupied an intermediate position between the king and the actual tiller of the soil. Viewed from the above discussion, it is clear that the agriculture system of the region was entirely based on the monsoon. The Indian monsoon is known for its variety of moods. Besides facing the moods of the changing monsoons the agriculture have to face the natural calamities like draughts and floods. Famine is a common factor the Indian economy and every decade is marked by a famine. The famine of 1467 A.D was the most severe one because it lasted for seven continuous years. It was believed that the malevolence of the goddess ‘Durga’ was the root cause of that natural calamity. It is also known as the famine of Durgadi. Because of the continuity of the famine the entire economy was ruined and the centers of Sanskrit learning were shattered. During this famine, many learned Brahmanas migrated to Kashi. Among them the Bhatt families were prominent ones. All the Vatanas [i.e. the land gifts to a reputed person] were ruined. The temples were also ruined and the population was scattered. So the famine of 1467 A.D inflicted a severe blow which distributed the traditional city from its rich inheritance. As noted already, the Bahamani layer, from the paithan excavations was discovered to be filled with mud and silt. Then it would be no wonder, if he [the common farmer] was made to feel that his sufferings or happiness was the fruit of a divine malevolence or benevolence. And only for this reason, he felt convinced that without the grace of God, his personal efforts would be of no value and the best things would be the absolute submission to the desires of the Almighty. Thus the nature and the structure of the agriculture economy, in which more than ninety percent population was engaged, compelled the farmer to be religious- minded. And it is rather striking that the religious centers like Paithan were enriched by the offerings, those were made by the poor peasants who wanted to escape from their traditional sufferings. He came there with the hope to lead a comfortable life and the clever priests convinced him to be hopeful forever. If we compare the hardships of the farmers of other than river basin, the common peasants of this region were better placed and well contented. And because of the contented life they were attracted towards such centers. Trade and Commerce Paithan seems to have been an important centre of trade and commerce even during the pr- satavahana period. The arthasatras of kautily gives some information regarding the volume of the trade of the south in the age of early Mauryan empire. Although it was deficient in woollen cloth, hides and horses , Daksinapatha abounds in counch shells, diamonds , precious stones, pearls and articles of gold. Moreover, the southern trade routes across Daksinapatha traverse a territory rich in mines and valuable merchandise, is frequented by many and easy to travel by. And from the Buddhist literature it is evident that Pratishthana was the great capital city and centre of great commercial activities. The emergence of the Satavahanas totally transformed the facet of Pratishthana centre. It enjoyed the commercial status in those days just as any commercial place in modern times . Hence during the times of the satavahanas, paithan attained a status of great international reputation. There was very brisk and wide-spread inland trade because of the prosperity of the region. This is testified by the Greek travelers and geographers. According to them, there were a number of market towns along the west part of the Deccan plateau like Paithan. Tagara, Junnar, Nasik etc. Being the capital city and a town of great consequence it was well linked with the other trading centres and ports on the eastern and western coast lines. So it is necessary to study the role played by Paithan as an important trading centre. Trade routes As noted above, Paithan was linked with the important political and commercial centers of the whole of India. This fact is evident from various stories of the Jatakas and of the Jaina literature. The description of the trade routes may be studied thus: Northern Routes The Vindhya and Satpura ranges separate the North India from the South. Because of the deserts of Kachha and Rajasthan, generally the northern-routes passed through Malva and Avanti. Naturally they cut across the valleys such as Narmada, Tapti and also the Ganges. Out of these routes the Pratishthana-Sravasti route was probably the oldest one. It is referred to in the Baveru-Jataka, where Baveru asked his disciples to follow the Sravasti- Pratishthana path with its six intermediate halts and frequent river crossings [Pratishthana-Mahishmati-Ujjain-Gandhara-Vidisa-Kosambi and Sravasti]. Again one route leads from Kosambi to Patiliputra and the next to Agra and Mathura and from Mathura the third leads to Indraprastha, Taxila, Gandhara, Balkha and from thence to the centers of the Inter continental central Asiatic routes. The route from Pratishthana to North India generally passed through the region of Ajanta hills [Markhinda] which are famous for its Buddhist caves and paintings and Bhogavardhana, a contemporary Janapada. The next important intermediary halt was the city of Burhanpur, adjoining the Tapti valley and the Satpura Mountain. The next halt Mahishmati, a famous ancient city, was situated at such a strategical point that both the ranges of Satpura [Saindva pass] and Vindhya [Gujari pass] meet in a point. The next halts were Ujjain and Vidisa. The supremacy of the Satavahanas over this region is testified by the Bhilasa epigraph. Thus the northen routes were important as they linked the southern metropolitan cities with the north Indian and Central Asiatic trading centres. Through there were much hardships while crossing the mountains and the rivers it was the safest and surest way because it avoided the hazards of sea voyage. Thus the whole of the northen India was commercially linked up with Pratishthana, the famous capital of the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas were very particular about their trade and commerce. There special interest in this context is evident from the following Jaina accounts. According to the Jaina tradition, once Salivahana asked his commander- in- chief to conquer Mathura. The commander- in- chief immediately left on an expedition. However, he did not dare to ask the king about the location of the city of Mathura that was to be conquered. Hence he conquered both the Mathuras [i.e. north as well as south Mathura]. Thus the story is suggestive of the over lordship of the Satavahanas on the said region, would safeguard their commercial interest with the foreign countries. Again the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva confirms the trade contacts between Pratishthana and the North Indian centres. It is mentioned that Dharma, a feudal lord travelled from Deccan to Malva and Sangramadatta was said to have carried gold on a camel back from Pratishthana to Patiliputra. Moreover, the Pratishthana-Ujjain route was marked by certain interesting intermediary centres. Firstly, there were certain ancient Janapadas like Bhogavardhana along the route. Secondly, the world famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora lay on it. The Buddhist rock cut caves and the paintings of Ajanta are famous since that time. The northen route from Ujjain, after crossing the river Narmada and proceeding towards modern Burhanpur came to the ancient town Bahal from where the caravans either went to south towards Pratishthana or west to Nasik. The famous caves of Ajanta, Pitalkhora and Aurangabad lay on the Bahal- Pratishthana route. The most strategic intermediate halt on the northern route was Ujjain or Avanti which was the most ancient town of India. And the acquisition of Ujjain by the Satavahanas was a matter of pride and prestige. The over lordship of the Satavahanas on city of Ujjain can be evidenced through a number of Jain stories. A certain Jaina Acharya freed his sister from the unlawful imprisonment by a king of foreign dynasty with the help of the help of the king, Satavahana. And it is evident that the sakas and Ksatrapass were alien to this region and Gautamiputra satakarni not only defeated the sakas and the ksatrapas but had exterminated them from the Indian soil. The restruck coins by Gautamiputra satakarni prove it beyond doubt. Again the sanchi epigraphs confirm the said fact. The southern Routes The Southern- Routes were directly connected with Paithan. Paithan’s connections with southern areas were of a different nature when compared to the north. It was due to the fact that their empire extended from West coast to East coast. Further, the entire trade from the ports likes Masula on the East coast and the islands centers such as kondapur and Tagara was directly connected with Pratishthana. It is possible that Pratishthana must have also been a centre of trade guilds and other commercial concerns. In fact Pratishthana was the meeting place of traders from the east and the west. This is further testified by the excavated data at Paithan. And tar in Osmanabad district seems to have been another important metropolitan city where a large Roman settlement existed.

Economy, Trade and Commerce II

Dr. Fleet say, 2A study of the maps has shown the former existence of an early trade route of which well-marked traces still remain, from the east coast through Golconda or Hyderabad, Ter and Paithan to Broach. There were two starting points; one was Masulipatnam, on the eastern coast, in the northern part of the Krisna but also the sea-borne traffic from the far east2. The other starting points was probably Vinukonda, inland in the southern part of the same district, which would serve admirably as a collecting centre for the local products of the sea-side country or the south of Krisna. The roads from these two places joined each other at a point about twenty six miles towards the east by south from Hyderabad or perhaps at a point about twenty three miles further in the same direction. And from that point the single road ran in the most natural manner, through easy country viz. Hyderabad, Kalyani, ter and Paithan. We have no clear idea of the most southern routes but from the Jatakas we learn that trade were carried with Suvarndvipa. In Manimekhlai, it is mentioned that a certain Brahmana completed his pilgrimage from Kasi to Kanyakumari with his only daughter. However, a second starting point was from Kolapur. From Kolapur this road leads to Vanavasi, Chitaldurga and thence to Kanyakumari and Suvarnadvipa. Comparatively this was the less important route, because it was more or less, used for the purpose of pilgrimage. Secondly, as far as Paithan was concerned the south Indian trade centers were distantly connected because the bulk of the inland trade was dominated by the south Indian kingdom of the Pandya and Chola dynasties. Thirdly, the south Indian trading centers like Vanavasi, Kanyakumari and etc were not convenient for the merchandise of the Satavahana Empire. 

The western Routes The Western trade routes played a significant role in promoting the economic activities of the Satavahanas, as these routes were connected with the western ports which were famous for their exports to the Western countries and the inland mercantile centers like Paithan, Tagara, and Junnar etc. According to the author of the Periplus Baryagaza, Bharukccha of Junnar inscription and modern Broach was the northern most important port in the Dachinabades. He further adds that the inland commercial enterports from which streams of trade flowed to Baryagaza were Ozene, Paithan and Tagara. The caravans could reach this important western port of Bharukcchha by two natural ways. Starting from Pratishthana the way leads to broach via Ellora, Pitalkhora, Bahal and Prakash across the Tapti. And the other route followed the course of Godavari river i.e Pratishthana, Nevasa, Nasik and Broach. The Periplus notices Paithan and Tagara as the important cities of commerce in Dakhinabades. Paithan towards the south of Baryagaza from which a twenty-day journey and eastward from this about a ten-day journey is another very large city of Tagar. Below Baryagaza stood the port of Sopara, the Soupara of Ptolemy, the Supara of the Periplus, the Soparaka or Soparga of epigraphic records and modern Sopara in Thana district. And this could be reached by following the same course through Nasik and the famous Trimbak pass. The greatest port in the Western Deccan was kalyan, on the eastern shore of the Bombay harbour, the Kalina of inscriptional and the Calliene of the Periplus. From the various inscriptional records it is clear that Kalyan was a prosperous trading and industrial centre. And the approach road from Pratishthana to Kalyan passed through Junnar and Naneghat which is well known for its inscriptions of the Satavahana and other dynasties. The second important route passed through Ranjangaon, Poona, Bhaja, Karla and Kalyan. Colliena or Kalyan was the principal western port of the Andhra kingdom. Besides these there were many other important ports situated on the west coast. They were Simylla [the Symulla of Ptolemy, the Chimulo of Yuan Chwang and the Chemula of two Kanheri inscriptions, certainly the modern Chaul about twenty Five miles south of Bombay harbour. During the times of emergency i.e. when the sakas took hold of Kalyan and the other upper Western ports the Satavahanas carried their foreign trade through Chaul. And it was also linked with Paithan by the same Naneghat pass. There seemed to have been a constant struggle for supremacy over Baryagaza as noticed in several Jaina stories. The story of Satavahana of Pratishthana and Nahavahana of Baryagaza is famous in this connection. According to the same story the war between them was continued for years together and ultimately the king of Pratishthana became the master of the region by playing a trick through his minister. It is evident from the inscriptions that the Sakas closed the port of Kalyan to the Satavahanas; hence they were forced to wind such a long route to Baryagaza. From the Kanheri inscriptions of Madhariputa Sakasena and of Sri Yana Satakarni it is clear that the Sakas captured the port of Kalyan with a view to destroy the economic resource of their enemies, the Satavahanas. It may be noted that Paithan was also linked with the Trans Asiatic Route through Broach, Taxila and ultimately Gandhar. This was the less popular route as it passed through the Aravali Mountain and the dry desert of Sindh and Rajasthan. From the above discussion, it is clear that Pratishthana was the metropolitan city of great trade and commerce. Secondly, it was linked with the important trading centers and emporia all over India. Thirdly, it was the great mercantile center where the commercial articles from the southern and south eastern parts of India were accumulated and later on dispatched to the specified ports and destinations. Fourthly, it was connected with the major European countries through the western ports like Broach, Sopara, Kalyan and etc. Fifthly, it was the headquarters of a number of merchants and industrialists. Sixthly, the Satavahanas were particular about their economic activities and some of their kings tried to establish their mastery over the regions of central India. Finally, the bulk of trade through Kalyan was considerably large, and the mastery of this trade was challenged very often by the Sakas and the Ksatrapas. So Kalyan and Broach were the two great centers which augmented the Satavahana Empire. However, after the fall of the Satavahanas, we hear nothing of the economic prosperity of Paithan. It continued to be a town of consequence up to the fall of the Yadavas but unfortunately our scope in the economic activity of this region is very limited. During the periods of the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas, it once again rose to eminence with full force of economic and industrial activities. Even, it maintained the skill in the textile production up to the end of the 18th century. However, it never achieved the economic hegemony of the Satavahana period as seen from the available data. The great Chinese traveler Hieum-T’sang visited this city and mentioned its greatness as a political center during the reign of the Chalukyas of Badami. The tempora painting activities were going on during this period. And it is painted in one of the caves of Ajanta about king pulakesin 11, receiving an embassy from Persia. The texture of the painted cloth reminds us of the textile skill of Paithan. The Rashtrakuta period was marked by the creation of the Kailasa temple of Ellora. And it is mentioned in the Verulsivalaya Mahatmya that five hundred artisans from Paithan completed the said structure. And it is evident from the Mahanubhava literature that Paithan was the biggest city and it was full of its creative activities in decorative and industrial arts. After the fall of the Yadavas it again received a general setback. However, it continued in its production of Paithani up to the end of the seventeenth century. So in the field of economic activities no city other than Paithan from Maharashtra had retained its traditions. Even today the Paithan products, specially the silk sarees, are in greats demand in European countries. Now it is necessary to study the nature and scope of the industries of Paithan. 

The condition of roads and means of transport According to Travanier, Deccan was a country without roads, wheel carriages do not travel, the roads the roads being too much interrupted by high mountain, tanks and rivers and there being many narrow and difficult passes. Only oxen and packhorses were available for the conveyance of men and for the transport of goods and merchandise. Large palanquins were available in large scale. Bullock carts, chariots, horses, oxen etc were the principal means of transport. However, the author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea complaints those goods from Paithan and other places in the Deccan had to be brought to Bhroach in wagons in greats tracts without roads. These were provided by guild organizations. These organisations have been in existence since the early times. The whole of the Deccan was dotted with a net work of the guilds. 

Industrial and Commercial set-up Industry and commerce were the significant factors of economic set-up. The industries of the region were mostly connected with the agriculture products and the mineral wealth of the region. The important agriculture produce of the area was mainly cotton and hence it was no wonder if the textile industry flourished in this region. Secondly, the Godavari basin provided the mineral wealth in various forms of silica and its compounds. So it was also famous for precious stones and other such articles. Because of this mineral wealth it provided boosting in the export of precious stones and other forms of jewellery. The textile industry naturally attracted many weaverts, dyers, spinners, painters and such other skilled workers. Besides these potential products, being a capital, it attracted the architects, the carpenters, masons, planners, etc. As a religious center there was sample scope to the sculptors, perfumers, horticulturists, potters etc. From the local connection of the surface finds, it is clear that the clay industry was in a flourishing state. Secondly, the production of various types of beads was done on a very large scale. There were all types of clay industries. The area provides suitable clay and from this particular clay many articles were prepared. So generally references are made to the following professionals at Paithan. They are such as weavers[Kolikas], carpenters[Vadhokas], stone masons[Selavadhokas], stone polishers[Mithikas], jewelers[Manikaras], iron-workers[Kamaras], polishers[Tesakaras], iron mongers[Lohavanyas], goldsmiths[Suvarnakaras], potters[Kularikas], brassier[Kasakaras], fisherman[Dasa], oil pressers[Tilapisakas], fabricators of hydraulic engines[Odayantrikas],corn dealers[Dhamanikas],florists[Malakaras],artisans[Avesanis], writers[Lekhhakas], leather workers[Carmakaras] etc. Obviously there must have been followers of many other trades and professions common in any well organized society. As Paithan is famous for the production of Paithani and for the precious stones of silicon compound it is necessary to provided some more details about the same. Both of these articles formed the bulk of export material, hence they greatly contributed to the growth of economy of the region. 

Minerals From many foreign accounts it is evident that Paithan was the important center of Carnelian, Onxy, Agate and Chalcendony. We have large quantities of semi-precious stones deposited in the rocky areas of the Godavari valley. These articles of silica come under the category of precious stones which was in great demand in European countries. On the bank of Godavari the onxy or Carnelian is still found in abundance. Carnelian is a fine compound of silica and it is generally translucent red in colour. This is also known as gomeda in the vernacular language. Another variety is chalcedony, which is a beautiful mineral compound of silica, usually banded, translucent of waxy luster, generally white or bluish-white, apparently amorphous but consisting of crystalline fibers. The other form of chalcedony is known as agate and it is alternatively white opaque and grayish translucent compound. Agate was found in its variety of forms and it was used in a number of ways. It was used as an ornament, and many other useful utensil were also made out of agate. 

  Bead Industries Carnelian and agate beads, etched with different patterns are of common occurrence in India. The technique of etching is known in this country from a remote past. In 1925, Mackay showed that etched beads were an important link between the Sumerian and the Indian civilizations. However, among the early historic sites in the Deccan, Paithan and for that matter all Satavahana sites; provide a rich variety of beads, both in terracotta’s and semi-precious stones. The mention of the finds of such type of beads is made in the archaeological reports of the excavations at Paithan. So the bead industry of Paithan is the most ancient one, deriving certain techniques and traits from the Indus Valley Civilization. Generally the beads were made out of faience, agate, carnelian, jasper, lapis lazuli, glass, shell, stone and terracotta, etc. Typologically they can be classified into several groups. Among the faience beads there are the barrel collared, the flat collared, the Amalaka and its variants, deep or shallow incisions, one or both end flat, the granulated, the spherical, the animal shaped [generally tortoise] and the annular one. There are a large number of glass beads also but it is rather difficult to ascertain their periods. They represent a wide range of shapes and colours. The colours include white, yellow-green, red, blue, sky blue [most common], dark blue, violet, purple blue, black and orange etc. Among the glass beads there are the spherical, globular, cylinder with grooved collars, circular bi-convex, flat-barrel collared, disc-shaped, short barrel, lug collared segmented gadrooned, bi-conical hexagonal truncated, gadrooned and short cylindrical. The shell beads formed the third important factor of the collection. Because of the river basin plenty of shells are available, hence they are found in large quantity. Their shapes are identical with that of the glass beads. They are the most durable one. The other articles of the shell will be discussed in due course. As referred already, the river basin is full with shells. Naturally the shell industry formed the major factor of the trade and commerce of the region. Besides the manufacturing of the beads, bangles, ear-studs and other articles were also manufactured. The shape of the beads of the shell was identical with that of previous one. Certain weights for measuring the precious articles were also cut from these shells. 

The Etched Beads Besides the above mentioned beads, Paithan was famous for the manufacturing of the etched beads. There are three principal types of these etched beads. They are white pattern on red background, black pattern on whitened surface of the stone and the third is black pattern directly etched on the stone. The processing of etching was done with the help of certain chemicals like Potash, white lead and the juice of the Kirar bush [Capparis aphylla]. Besides these patterns the variety of decorative pattern is also available. 

The Terracotta Beads The terracotta formed an independent industry. Besides the manufacturing of beads many other articles like the bangles, the ear-ornaments, the seals, sealing pendants and rings of several types were manufactured. The bullaes and other articles were also manufactured. The kaolin figures are known for their structure and skill. The shapes of the terracotta beads were varied. The areca nut is the most common variety. The areca nut is sub-divided into three major groups and they are broad flat base with a tapering top, biconical with flat ends and with one end flat. The second popular shape was faggot. The other shapes are identical to that of glass beads. The details of the other articles have been discussed in the next chapter. 

Metal Industries Under this group come the industries of copper, iron, lead, ivory and bone. The existence of such metal industries is substantiated by the finds that are reported from Paithan. So the metal industry was an important factor of the economic activities of the city. Leather tanning was also a popular industry. 

The textile industry The textile industry is the only traditional industry that Paithan has retained, as the export of the finer varieties of cloth from this region is testified in all the available records. Cotton was produced in large quantities; cotton yarn and fine cloth are mentioned among the articles of export from Baryagaza [Bhroach] by Periplus [1st century A.D.], Marco polo [13st century A.D.], and by Travernier [15th century A.D.]. So from per plus it is evident that cotton industry was the principal industry of the region. The main canters of cotton textile industry in the Deccan were Minnagar, Paithan and Tagara. In fact the invention of cotton is a breakthrough in the histry of human civilization. Apart from their being durable and washable their use was practicable when compared to skins and barks. So also silk fibers which have been highly valued. Silk fibers are known to Indians since very remote past. We find references to silk products such as hiranyadrapi, patto, kosau, candataka, kambal, shamlya, Kshouma, Pandava, Tarpya, Karpas, etc. in ancient literature and classical works. Amazing links are to be found in the chain of historical evidence of recognized and famous costume fabrics. One can go back to Rig-Veda for the golden woven fabric-hiranyadrapi, to the epic period for the pearl fringed fabric-Manichira-the fine cottons of Ganjam-Mysore and the Karnatak, to the Jaina authorities for Indian silks Patto, to the gorgeous Paithanis from the great ancient trading and industrial centre, Pratishthana or Paithan, figuring in the early records of Greece [2nd century B.C]. So according to Periplus, Paithan was an important centre of textiles industry. India has every reason to be proud of her artistic handmade fabrics. These special artistic textiles are not the result of modern development. As mentioned earlier, their existence can be traced back to thousands of years almost up to the early periods of history. It is amazing how the crafts have survived the ravages of time and the impact of political changes, often of a radical nature. Indian textiles of greats merit have reigned supreme in world markets for well nigh two thousand years. The art of fine weaving, the varied processes of printing and dyeing and the arts of had and loom embroideries were perfected by our people even when conditions of work were different and difficult. The crafts were mostly hereditary. The qualities required of true artisans were apprenticeship, devotion to duty and co-operative effort. The knowledge of the arts and crafts was imparted by father to son; the business too passed from father to son and general competitions was eliminated by means of co-operative guilds. Today also Paithani sarees completely capture the female hearts not only in India but also outside India. Paithani is the name given to the high class silken golden embroidered saris. These sarees can also be fringed with pearls or precious stones. As stated above, the process of weaving was rather complicated. But the traditionally skilled workers have shown their adeptness as the details of weaving process would show. 

The process of weaving of Paithani The process may be divided into four separate but interdependent stages. They are :[1] Silk winding, [2] Gold and silver wiring and threading, [3] Dyeing and [4] Designing. Out of these the process of gold and silver threading and designing is rather difficult and complicated, as it requires more skill and tenacity. In local usage weaving is known as ‘Tana and Bana’. The Paithani industry was so flourishing that it provided work to the entire habitation of the city. This is evident from the names of the inhabitants who did dyeing and bleaching work. The area of ‘Tarali’ i.e. a locality where silver was transferred into thread is named after the profession. The area of ‘Jargali’ i.e. the place where the silver wire was wound with silk is named after that job. There is yet another place called ‘Pavata’ where a big machine for making gold and silver threads was placed. The area of ‘Salivada’ is a place where the salis [the weavers] dwelt. The names of certain families also indicate that they were previously associated with the manufacture of Paithanis. For example ‘pavata’, the family working with the Pavata, Lagade, and the family associated with melting the metals, ‘Chapade’, the family associated with preparation of the bars of the metals of specified weight. So Paithani textiles formed an important part of the entire industrial activities of town. It dominated not only the native market, but also attracted the international textiles market. This is evident from the fact that this Paithani style, especially the border designs has been freely borrowed in the fabrics of the Deccan group, what are known as ‘the pharaspati and the Indori’ border which are the further development of the Paithani style. The Paithani saris suggest pomp and glory and are offered to a bride in the marriage ceremony. Until the period of the Yadavas, it was one of the important articles of export. After the fall of the Yadavas the textile industry received a set-back. It is mentioned that a Siddharaja of Anhilwada, being jealous about the prosperity of the Yadavas, attacked Paithan and forcibly took five hundred families of the expert weavers from Paithan. Thus the industrial art was carried to Gujarat. Now Surat is an important centre of silk and jari industries. However, when the Bahamnis established their hold on this city, they tried to revive the traditional industry of Paithan. The Paithani production was further enlarged which included the production of Kimkhab, Mashru and Himroo patterns. Kimkhab, Mashru and Himroo are the popular pattern of the Muslims. This is evident from the account of the Persian Ambassador who visited the kutubshahi of Golkonda in 1603 A.D. According to him the Kimkhab or gold cloth made at paithan become illustrious throughout the Deccan. It was in great demand and sold at fantastic prices. He took with him, amongst other presents, a piece of Kimkhab the manufacture of which took five years for the weavers of Paithan. The work is exceeding complicated and difficult and hence the workmen were highly paid. The work is chiefly carried on the ground floors. This is the reason why a provision of ground floor to every house of a kimkhab and Paithani merchant was made. The merchants were generally Muslims or Arabs. Even now the houses of Ala-Kuli, Koldi-Kash, Kala-pahad and Ali-Chausa remind us of the prosperity of the city. Though they are situated in the most crowded part of the city, sufficient provision was made for the fabrication of these textiles. The second variety is mixed cotton and silk fabric generally known as ‘Mashru’. It is specially an Islamic contribution to the existing exotic varieties that the Deccan had produced. This is generally used by the native ladies as inner garments. The term ‘Mashru’ is derived from ‘Shara’ meaning ‘allowable in law’. The material is so called because the mixture of cotton with silk makes it acceptable for men to put on while offering prayers. The wearing of pure silk during prayers was prohibited by the prophet. The second variety similar to mashru is known as ‘Himroo’. The texture of it is almost as fine as muslin. It is used for veils, head dresses, bridal robes and saris by the wealthier classes. But today the production of both these articles has practically disappeared from Paithan. Besides these textiles, Paithan was also famous for the manufacture of embroidered muslin, brocades and dopattas. Paithan also acted as an important mart where the goods from the vast countryside were marketed. Some of the products were undoubtedly expored to foreign countries mostly in the west. 

The Sarthavaha The Sarthavahas were a kind of cooperative organization in the field of trade and commerce. The cooperation was necessary, because of the insecurity of the roads, the long distance, the robbers, the hostile tribesmen and such other obstacles due to which they [the caravan dealers] could not reach safely to their destination. Generally the trade routes of our region passed through the famous mountain Satpura and Vindhya where the traders individually could be no match for the bands of the robbers. They could only oppose, when they were united in a body. Hence they untied themselves in a body known as Sarthavaha. This type of organization of mercantile classes was brought into existence by a similar process even in earlier periods of Indian history. Corporate activity was a common feature of the economic system in the Vedic and post-Vedic periods. The word ‘Sresthi’ and ‘gana’ were referred in the Vedic literature. Sresthin denotes the head-man of a guild. These organizations were current during the Sarthavahas and the post- Sarthavahas also. So different merchants carrying goods combined together and traveled under a captain called Sarthavaha who had a thorough knowledge of the trade routes and directed the merchants as regards the routes to be followed, places for halting for rest places where rivers should be crossed, and the danger spots to be avoided. There was also another officer called Thala-Niyamaka or land pilot who was also helpful to the caravans in avoiding the dangers and difficulties of travel. Some of the big trade organizations had their own armed force to protect the caravan from the robbers. 

Guilds Practically all the different branches of occupation [i.e. traders, moneylenders, artisans, cultivators, herdsman, weavers, jewelers, dyers etc.] had some sort of definite organization. The particular term used to denote the corporation of tradesmen or mechanics is ‘Sreni’. So ‘Sreni’ is the organization of person’s carrying the same profession despite their castes. This organization corresponds to that of the ‘Guilds’ in the medieval Europe. They [Guilds] are generally eighteen in number. A large number of inscriptions of different periods refer to a number of guilds. There are carpenters [including different types of wood work], workers in metal [gold, silver and copper], workers in stone, leather, ivory fabricating hydraulic engines [odayantrika seni ], bamboo [vasakara], brasiera [kasakara], jewellers, weavers, potters, oilmillers [Tilapisaka], dyers, fisher folk, painters, corn-dealers [dhammaika], cultivators, garland makers [malakaras] and flower sellers, mariners, herdsmen, traders, robbers and freebooters, moneylenders and forest police who guarded the caravans. As mentioned already, Paithan was the centre of many industries and as one of the collecting centers of the Satavahana Empire, it was certainly associated with these srenis or guilds. Secondly, formerly it was a capital and the heads of the important guilds enjoyed the posts of honors in the state administration, because the heads were generally the favorites of the kings. Thirdly, it was situated on the important Sarthavaha-path; hence it served as a centre of halting for rest. It also provided a large market place; hence generally the Sarthavaha had a considerable stay and exchange of goods at this place. The guilds of the artisans and the gandhikas are mentioned in various inscriptions. The weaver guild was the basic organization of the region. The guilds were autonomous bodies having their own rules, regulations and bye-laws. The had a sanction by the state. The chief executive officer was called Adhyakas or Mukhyas or Sresthin. They were assisted by committees of various members. Disputes among the members were settled by their own executive. Generally the office of Bhandgarika [treasurer or the superintendent of the state] carried with it the judgeship of all the merchant guilds. Paithan beings a capitals, might be the headquarter of the Bhandgarika. So the Srenis [or guilds] enjoyed great reputation for their honesty and fair dealing. Inscriptions show that perpetual endowments were made with them. They received cash deposits and endowments of property and undertook to spend income from them in a specified manner. The guilds also functioned as the local banks and provided the monetary assistance to the concerned organisation. Hence the guilds played a significant role in promoting trades and crafts of the region. The guilds had also much social importance like the caste organisation. Though the caste organisation had its origins in occupational differentiation, it developed into a social organization, membership in which was determined by birth. A guild, on the other hand was essentially an economic corporation. The membership is given without the criteria of caste or creed. In the local collection there are certain clay seals. They throw further interesting sidelights on the guilds organization of the period. But the legends are uncertain. Therefore, we are unable to affix them with current dynasty with any certainty. Out of the three seals, two bear the figure of elephant and the third is inscribed with the letters A.U.M. 

Foreign Trade Western Indian ports and towns played a dominant part in promoting trade and commerce with the Greece-Roman world in the early centuries of the Christian era. There was a network of trade routes and inland waterways which convulged at several important sea ports on the West Coast. Such an economic phenomenon prevailed for over a period of 800 years (200 B.C to 600A.D.) It was during this period that many towns and cities in Western India and also elsewhere in the country sprang up and became prosperous due to the trade. Their trading contacts with the Western world were wide ranging and included countries such as Persia, Egypt, Greece and Rome, almost comprising the whole of Greece-Helenstic world. Against the background, the economic role played by Paithan is being viewed. Many references are found in Pauranic and Buddhist literature regarding the flourishing condition of these areas in the early centuries of the Christian era. The political and cultural unity under the Satavahanas of the Deccan and the Kusanas of Western India greatly contributed to the growth of trade and commerce within the country and outside as well. They are further supplemented by the narrative of the maritime travelers and geographers of the Egyptian and western world, particularly of Greece-Roman world, who have made interesting observations regarding India. To mention a few in chronological order; they are such as Strabo, Pliny, Tactus, Ptolemy, the author of the Peutinger Tables, and the Revenue Geographer. However, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea is more detailed and trustworthy, for it gives a clear and comprehensive outline of Rome’s remarkable commerce with the East. Most of them lived in the first and second centuries. The political and economic condition of western India was certainly conducive to trade and commerce during the centuries under discussion. If western India had such a large number of thriving ports on its coast and emporia’s in its interior [as evidence by the writings of the author of periplus and Ptolemy, if foreign merchants came there for trade at considerable risk of pirates, and if there was so much sea-faring enterprise among the people of this country, the conclusion is irresistible that this whole region was one of prosperity, industrially developed and agriculturally advanced. All the evidences, literary, numismatic, inscriptional, and descriptive accounts of the foreign travelers are repleted with reference to sea-borne trade with Western India. The two capital cities that dominated the history of the time were Pratishthana, the chief city of the Satavahanas and Ujjain, that of the Western Ksatrapas. And these capitals were linked with the inland market towns such as Tagara, Junnar, Karnataka, Nasik, Govardhana, Vaijayanti, Brahmipuri, Nevada etc. The excavated objects from Baroda, Maheshvar-Navadatoli, Prakash, Bahal, Nasik, Nevasa, Brahmapuri, Kondapur etc. substance our view point. The description in the inscriptions from Nasik, Karle, Kuda, Bhaja and Besdsa testify to the vast quantity of merchandise imported and the variety of products exported. Onxy stones in profuse quantities from Paithan and Ujjain, ordinary cottons and coloured cottons and other articles of local production from Tagara and other southern regions figure in the account. 

  Exports and imports Periplus refers to the articles of exports and imports through the western ports such as Baryagaza, Kalyan and Sopara. Among the exports there were onxy, carnelian, agate, lyceum, ivory, silk-cloth, copper, spilkenard, butter ghee, silk- thread, legs of ebony, honey, ordinary cottons, coloured cottons and such other things. These were collected from various market towns. These was brought by ‘waggons and through great tracts either to Kalyan-Sopara or to Broach. Among the imports, there were Italian and Arabian mines copper, tin, lead, antimony, gold and silver, coral, topaz, clothes of different varieties, storax, sweet clover, flint-glass and realgar. We are also told that for the sake of Saka Satrapa many luxurious articles such as costly vessels of silver, fine wines, beautiful maidens for the harem, very fine cloth and choicest ointments were imported. The balance of trade was in favour of India and Pliny rightly remarked about the extravagancy of the Roman Empire which drained its finances because of their over addiction to oriental luxuries. He says that India, China and Arabia absorbed between them one hundred million Sesterces per annum. This sum is calculated by Mommsen to represent 2 1, 1000,000 of which nearly half went to India. One of the fashionable extravagances immensely stimulated the Indian trade. Thus much of the prosperity of the region was due to trade and commerce. The high standard of living and luxury of town life described in ‘Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra’ and represent in sculptures and paintings were well to do and their professional skill was of a high order. This is amply illustrated by the excellent workmanship found in architecture of art. This is evident from the inscriptions of Sanchi and Pitalkhora. On the southern gateway of the great stupa at Sanchi there is an inscription recording a gift of one of its architraves by Anand, ‘a son of Vasithi’ the foreman of the artisans [avesanim] of Raja Siri Satakarni. The benedictions of a Gandhika family from Paithan are recorded on one of the Pitalkhora caves. The prosperity of the region can also be evidence from the paintings at Ajanta. In one of the caves, king Pulakesin ll’s court scene is represented. The intercourse between the western worlds had naturally influenced the Indian society. The abundance of foreign culture material in Indian historical sites shows that central and western India contained centers of industry manufacturing a variety of products from beads and gems to clothing. Quite a large number of inscriptions in Western India caves mention ‘Yavanas as residents of the country and as patrons of Buddhism’. They may have been Greek citizens or Indian traders with Greek affiliation. Secondly the Indians have adopted the new western Technique in the manufacture of pottery and other antiquities. The evidence of this adoption is significant from the antiquities found in the excavations at these important trade centers such as Ter, Nevasa, Prakash, Baroda, Nagarjunakonda, and etc. On the other hand there is no reason to account for the occurrence of Greeco-Roman antiquities in such variety at these important trade centers. the contacts From the above discussion it is clear that Paithan played a dominant role in promoting the inland and the foreign trade during the period of the Satavahanas. This is further evidence by literacy, numismatic and archeological evidences recorded at Paithan. It is recorded in the annals of Roman History, that the news of the accession of Augustus quickly reached India. Many Indian states sent embassies to congratulate him. The most stinking one was sent by Porus. The Porus has been identified with Satavahanas king Pulumavi, who sent his embassy from the well-known capital city of Paithan. A Roman silver coin of Tiberius [14-37 A.D] has been discovered at Paithan. A number of blaked clay imitations of Roman coins, perhaps made from moulds, have hooks at the top for hanging round the neck as amulets have been discovered in large number. They are the rough copies of the coins of Tiberius. There are some of the glass-beads containing gold foil and certain features of western influence in the local collection at Paithan. As mentioned already, Paithan was an important bead manufacturing centre. And than it would have direct contacts with the western markets of the Mediterranean, Greece, Rome and the coasts of Egypt and Arabia. Among pottery types there are pieces of Roman amphorae consisting of base-portions, some shreds of red polished ware, certain terracotta figurines including the head of boy with foreign features and stone seals of a lady having western influence, all are indicative of Paithan’s intimate association with western countries. Among the Kaolin-finds there is a lion of Egyptian style. Besides this, it has been conclusively proved that there was a colony of Roman settlement at Ter. Ter was directly connected with Paithan and it would be no wonder if we presume that the Roman traders were equally familiar with Paithan. So the above references confirm the contacts between the western world and Paithan.

Caste system in 1818

Cast system The Caste System (4th chapter) In ancient India there developed a social system in which people were divided into separate close communities. These communities are known in English as caste. The origin of the caste system is in Hinduism, but it affected the whole Indian society. The caste system in the religious form is basically a simple division of society in which there are four castes arranged in a hierarchy and below them the outcast. But socially the caste system was more complicated, with much more castes and sub-castes and other divisions. Legally the government disallows the practice of caste system but has a policy of affirmative discrimination of the backward classes. The Beginning of the caste system There are different theories about the establishment of the caste system. There are religious-mystical theories. There are biological theories. And there are socio-historical theories.

 

The religious theories explain how the four Varnas were founded, but they do not explain how the Jats in each Varna or the untouchables were founded. According the Rig Veda, the ancient Hindu book, the primal man - Purush - destroyed himself to create a human society. The different Varnas were created from different parts of his body. The Brahmans were created from his head; the Kshatrias from his hands; the Vaishias from his thighs and the Sudras from his feet. The Varna hierarchy is determined by the descending order of the different organs from which the Varnas were created. Other religious theory claims that the Varnas were created from the body organs of Brahma, who is the creator of the world. The biological theory claims that all existing things, animated and unanimated, inherent three qualities in different apportionment. Sattva qualities include wisdom, intelligence, honesty, goodness and other positive qualities. Rajas include qualities like passion, pride, valour and other passionate qualities. Tamas qualities include dullness, stupidity, lack of creativity and other negative qualities. People with different doses of these inherent qualities adopted different types of occupation. According to this theory the Brahmans inherent Sattva qualities. Kshatrias and Vaisias inherent Rajas qualities. And the Sudras inherent Tamas qualities. Like human beings, food also inherents different dosage of these qualities and it affects its eater's intelligence. 

The Brahmans and the Vaisias have Sattvic diet which includes fruits, milk, honey, roots and vegetables. Most of the meats are considered to have Tamasic qualities. Many Sudra communities eat different kinds of meat (but not beef) and other Tamasic food. But the Kshatrias who had Rajasic diet eat some kinds of meat like deer meat which is considered to have Rajasic qualities. Many Marathas who claim to be Kshatrias eat mutton. The drawback of this theory is that in different parts of India the same food was sometimes qualified to have different dosage of inherent qualities. For example there were Brahmans who eat meat which is considered Tamasic food. The social historical theory explains the creation of the Varnas, Jats and of the untouchables. According to this theory, the caste system began with the arrival of the Aryans in India. The Aryans arrived in India around 1500 BC. The fair skinned Aryans arrived in India from south Europe and north Asia. Before the Aryans there were other communities in India of other origins. Among them Negrito, Mongoloid, Austroloid and Dravidian. The Negrito have physical features similar to people of Africa. The Mongoloid have Chinese features. The Austroloids have features similar the aboriginals of Australia. The Dravidians originate from the Mediterranean and they were the largest community in India. When the Aryans arrived in India their main contact was with the Dravidians and the Austroloids. The Aryans disregarded the local cultures. They began conquering and taking control over regions in north India and at the same time pushed the local people southwards or towards the jungles and mountains in north India. The Aryans organized among themselves in three groups. The first group was of the warriors and they were called Rajayana, later they changed their name Rajayana to Kshatria. The second group was of the priests and they were called Brahmans. These two groups struggled politically for leadership among the Aryans. In this struggle the Brahmans got to be the leaders of the Aryan society. The third group was of the farmers and craftsmen and they were called Vaisia. The Aryans who conquered and took control over parts of north India subdued the locals and made them their servants. In this process the Vaisias who were the farmers and the craftsmen became the landlords and the businessmen of the society and the locals became the peasants and the craftsmen of the society. In order to secure their status the Aryans resolved some social and religious rules which, allowed only them to be the priests, warriors and the businesmen of the society. For example take Maharashtra. Maharashtra is in west India. This region is known by this name for hundreds of years. Many think that the meaning of the name Maharashtra is in its name, Great Land. But there are some who claim that the name, Maharashtra, is derived from the Jat called Mahar who are considered to be the original people of this region. In the caste hierarchy the dark skinned Mahars were outcasts. The skin color was an important factor in the caste system. The meaning of the word "Varna" is not class or status but skin color. Between the outcasts and the three Aryan Varnas there is the Sudra Varna who are the simple workers of the society. The Sudras consisted of two communities. One community was of the locals who were subdued by the Aryans and the other were the descendants of Aryans with locals. In Hindu religious stories there are many wars between the good Aryans and the dark skinned demons and devils. The different Gods also have dark skinned slaves. There are stories of demon women trying to seduce good Aryan men in deceptive ways. 

There were also marriages between Aryan heroes and demon women. Many believe that these incidences really occurred in which, the gods and the positive heroes were people of Aryan origin. And the demons, the devils and the dark skinned slaves were in fact the original residence of India whom the Aryans coined as monsters, devil, demons and slaves. As in most of the societies of the world, so in India, the son inherited his father's profession. And so in India there developed families, who professed the same family profession for generation in which, the son continued his father's profession. Later on as these families became larger, they were seen as communities or as they are called in Indian languages, Jat. Different families who professed the same profession developed social relations between them and organized as a common community, meaning Jat. Later on the Aryans who created the caste system, added to their system non-Aryans. Different Jats who professed different professions were integrated in different Varnas according to their profession. Other foreign invaders of ancient India - Greeks, Huns, Scythains and others - who conquered parts of India and created kingdoms were integrated in the Kshatria Varna (warrior castes). But probably the Aryan policy was not to integrate original Indian communities within them and therefore many aristocratic and warrior communities that were in India before the Aryans did not get the Kshatria status. Most of the communities that were in India before the arrival of the Aryans were integrated in the Sudra Varna or were made outcast depending on the professions of these communities. Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated in Sudra Varna. And communities who professed polluting professions were made outcasts. The Brahmans are very strict about cleanliness. In the past people believed that diseases can also spread also through air and not only through physical touch. Perhaps because of this reason the untouchables were not only disallowed to touch the high caste communities but they also had to stand at a certain distance from the high castes. The Religious form of Caste System In Hinduism there exists four castes arranged in a hierarchy. Anyone who does not belong to one of these castes is an outcast. The religious word for caste is 'Varna'. Each Varna has certain duties and rights. Each Varna members have to work in certain occupation which only that Varna members are allowed. Each Varna has certain type of diet. The highest Varna is of the Brahman. Members of this class are priests and the educated people of the society. The Varna after them in hierarchy is Kshatria. The members of this class are the rulers and aristocrats of the society. After them are the Vaisia. Members of this class are the landlords and businessmen of the society. After them in hierarchy are the Sudra. Members of this class are the peasants and working class of the society who work in non-polluting jobs. The caste hierarchy ends here. 

Below these castes are the outcasts who are untouchable to the four castes. These untouchables worked in degrading jobs like cleaning, sewage etc. The first three castes had social and economical rights which the Sudra and the untouchables did not have. The first three castes are also seen as 'twice born'. The intention in these two births is to the natural birth and to the ceremonial entrance to the society at a much later age. Each Varna and also the untouchables are divided into many communities. These communities are called Jat or Jati (The caste is also used instead of Jat). For example the Brahmans have Jats called Gaur, Kokanastha, Sarasvat, Iyer and others. The outcasts have Jats like Mahar, Dhed, Mala, Madiga and others. The Sudra is the largest Varna and it has the largest number of communities. Each Jat is limited to professions worthy of their Varna. Each Jat is limited to the Varna diet. Each Jat members are allowed to marry only with their Jat members. People are born into their Jat and it cannot be changed. This is the how the caste system is supposed to be in its religious form. But in reality it is much more complicated and different from its religious form. The Confusing Caste System The confusion in the caste system begins by the use of the word caste. The Indians in their different languages use the word 'Jat' for any community who have something common like religion, language, origin, similar geographical background and so on. The Indians also use the word 'Jat' for Varna. The Portuguese who were the first European power to arrive in India distorted the word 'Jat' into caste. The British who arrived to India much later after the Portuguese also used the word caste. The British used the word Caste instead of Jat and Varna. And so sometimes in English the caste system is explained in a confusing way according to which, the caste system consists of four castes which are divided into many castes. Sometimes in English the word caste is used for Varna and the word sub-caste for Jat. In this section to prevent confusion we will use the words Varna and Jat. And now we will see the complication in the caste system itself. Each Varna consists of many communities called Jats. Each Varna does consist of different Jats but many of these Jats break up into more communities and each such community refers to itself as different or unique Jat. There are different reasons for these different communities within each Jat. One reason can be the different occupations each community within the Jat professes. Other reasons can be inter-Jat political reasons. Many Jats consists of millions of people and it also causes break up of the larger community into smaller communities. There are also Jats which originate from different parts of India and profess the same profession and therefore get a common name, even though they are not one single community. For example the Jats that profess cloth washing are called collectively as Dhobi. For non- Dhobis the Dhobis are one Jat but within them they are not one community. The hierarchy between the Varnas. All the Jats accept that the Brahman Varna is the highest Varna in the hierarchy and the untouchables are outcast and lowest in the hierarchy. But most of the Jats in different Varnas claim to be superior and higher than other Jats. Some of the Jats as stated earlier break up into smaller communities or Jats. In these Jats that break up into different communities, there are communities that look at themselves as superior or higher in hierarchy than other communities. Among the Brahman Varna, there are Jats that consider themselves as superior than other Brahman Jats. 

Some of the Brahman Jats break up into smaller communities, and between these communities within the Jat there also exist a hierarchy. Among the other Varnas there also exists hierarchy phenomenon. Different Jats claim to be superior than the other Jats in their Varna. Some Jats in the Vaisia and Sudra Varnas also claim to be closer or equal in hierarchy to the Brahman Varna. These Jats that claim this status adopted Brahman customs like vegetarian diet and strict observance of purity and cleanliness. Some Jats claim to be closer to Kshatria, which is the warrior class of the Indian society. The Marathas in west India and Reddys in south India were among the Jats which claimed Kshatria status. Among the outcast there was also the superior status phenomenon in which one outcast Jat considered itself as superior and did not have physically contact with other outcast Jats which it considered as inferior. For example the Mahars in west India considered themselves superior than Dhed and they did not mingle with the Dheds. Each Jat professes an occupation worthy of its Varna status. In most of the cases there was a connection between a persons profession and his Varna. Among the different Varnas there also developed guilds based on Jat lines, professing specific professions. In west India the Jat that professed oil pressing were called Somwar Teli. Another Jat members were the shepherds of the society and they were called Dhangar. Another Jat members were the cowherds of the society and they were called Gaoli. The Kunbis were the peasants of the society. But some of the professions had different status in different parts of India and they were located at different levels in the caste hierarchy. For example Dhobis (washers) in north India were seen as untouchables. While in west India they had Sudra status. The oil pressers in east India were seen as untouchables, in central India they had a high status while in west India they had Sudra status. There were also many cases where the Jat members did not profess occupation worthy of their Varna. Many Brahmans, who are supposed to be the priest and learned of the society, did not find jobs as priests or did not manage to feed their families as priests and therefore worked as simple farmers. On the other hand there were many Brahmans who were landlords and businessmen, professions supposed to belong to the Vaisia Varna. Also among the other Varnas not all professed the occupations worthy of their Varna. In west India the Maratha were the warriors and the aristocracy. Originally the Marathas belonged to the different Jats in west India. Most of these Jats were in Sudra level. But the Marathas who became the aristocracy of west India claimed and acquired the Kshatria status. In the 17th and the 18th century the Marathas even established an empire which ruled large parts of India. During the Maratha reign members of a Brahman Jat, Kokanastha Brahman, were ministers. From 1750 these Brahmans became the rulers of the Maratha Empire. Like the Marathas there were other communities which, religiously did not belong to the Kshatria status but acquired this status. The Reddy in Andra Pradesh and Nayar in Kerala are such two examples. Religiously marriage occurs within the Jat. The different Jats members almost always respected this rule and people who dared break this rule were outcasted. But this rule also had exceptions. Usually the higher Varnas were very strict about this custom. But in some of the higher level Jats of the society, they used to have polygamy. In these cases, because of scarcity of women, men use to marry women from the lower levels of the society. In some Indian societies between-jat marriage was even an acceptable feature. One such example of marriages existed in Kerala, in south India. In Kerala, Nayar women (aristocracy community) married men from Numbodiri Brahman community. Another problem considering the Jat marriage was the internal structure of the Jats. As stated earlier some Jats break up into smaller communities. In most of the cases each such community members marry only with members of their own community and not with other community members within the Jat. In some cases there is a hierarchy between the different communities of the same Jat. In such cases a daughter from the lower community could marry a son from the higher community but not vice versa. Each Varna had different diet. Hinduism has many strict dietary rules. In general the higher Jats are more strict about their dietary customs than the lower Jats. The Brahman Jats have the most strict dietary customs. They will not eat in lower Jats homes or even with lower Jats (because of this reason many restaurants hired Brahman cooks). The Brahman diet is supposed to include only vegetarian food. Jats who claimed Brahman status also adopted vegetarian diet of the Brahmans. But there are some Brahman Jats who traditionally eat meat, fish, chicken and egg (which is considered non-vegetarian). 

Some Brahman Jats in Kashmir, Orissa, Bengal and Maharashtra traditionally eat meat. But this meat was never cattle meat. Jat is determined by birth and it cannot be changed. In the beginning the caste system was not a strict system and people could move from one Varna to another. Indologists give different dates to this period of change. Some claim the change occurred around 500 B. C. and other claim 500 A. D. Until then, communities and even singular person moved from one Varna to another Varna, because of their desire to adopt different occupations. There were some kings who belonged the Kshatria (warrior castes) and changed their status to become religious Brahmans. There were also who changed their status to become warriors. And even after the caste system was organized in a strict manner there were many communities who did not always follow their status occupations. There was a case of a Jat that lost its high status because they did not profess the profession worthy of their Varna. The Kayastha of east and north east India originally belonged to the Kshatria Varna (warrior caste). Some time in the past among warriors communities, there developed a bureaucratic unit whose job was writing and listing war events and they were called Kayasthas. Because these unit members were not warriors, they were excluded from the Kshatria status and were given a lower status. But the Kayasthas even today claim Kshatria status. The Jat status Jats like Kayastha, Reddy, Maratha, Nayar and others changed the basic four-fold hierarchy caste system. These Jats had high status but their exact status is not clear and different communities give different interpretations to their status of different Jats. As stated earlier different Jats claim theirs to be the superior than the other Jats and therefore the caste system even today is not always interpreted objectively by Indians but subjectively. For example the Kayastha claim themselves to be Kshatria while others do not always agree with this claim. Among the Marathas the confusion is even greater. In the narrow sense the Jat of Maratha applies to 96 clans who ruled and governed the parts of west India. Originally the Maratha clans belonged to different levels of Indian hierarchy. They mostly belonged to different Jats of Sudra. But many Jats of west Maharashtra claim that they are Marathas too. Sometimes the Kokanastha Brahmans (who were ministers of Maratha empire in 18th century and later on continued the Maratha Empire and their reign) are also introduced as Marathas causing a greater confusion in Maratha definition. The reasons stated above are among the few reasons that causes confusion in caste system. 

Untouchables The untouchablity feature in the caste system is one of the cruelest features of the caste system. It is seen by many as one of the strongest racist phenomenon in the world. In the Indian society people who worked in ignominious, polluting and unclean occupations were seen as polluting peoples and were therefore considered as untouchables. The untouchables had almost no rights in the society. In different parts of India they were treated in different ways. In some regions the attitude towards the untouchables was harsh and strict. In other regions it was less strict. In regions where the attitude was less strict the untouchables were seen as polluting people and their dwellings were at a distance from the settlements of the four Varna communities. The untouchables were not allowed to touch people from the four Varnas. They were not allowed to enter houses of the higher Varnas. They were not allowed to enter the temples. They were not allowed to use the same wells used by the Varnas. In public occasions they were compelled to sit at a distance from the four Varnas. In regions where the attitude towards the untouchables were more severe, not only touching them was seen polluting, but also even a contact with their shadow was seen as polluting. If, because of any reason, there was a contact between an untouchable and a member of the Varnas, the Varna member became defiled and had to immerse or wash himself with water to be purified. In strict societies, especially among the 'Twice Born' (the three top Varnas) the touched 'Twice Born' also had to pass through some religious ceremonies to purify himself from the pollution. If the untouchable entered a house and touched things of a Varna member, the Varna members used to wash or clean the places where the untouchable touched and stepped. In some incidences the untouchables who associated with the Varna members were beaten and even murdered for that reason. Some higher hierarchy Jats also had servants whose job was to go or walk before the high Jats members and announce their coming to the streets and to see to it that the streets would be clear of untouchable people. The orthodox Hindus treated anyone who worked in any kind of polluting job as untouchable and did not have any contact with them. According to orthodox rules any one who does not belong to the four Varnas, meaning foreigners, are untouchables. The non-Hindus in caste system Religiously anyone who does not belong to the four Varnas is an outcast and untouchable. It means, all foreigners and non-Hindus are all supposed to be untouchables. But in reality neither all foreigners nor non-Hindus were treated as untouchables. Foreigners and non-Hindus were treated differently in different parts of India. Some of the foreigners adopted Hinduism and integrated in the upper level of the Hindu hierarchy. The Rajputs of Rajasthan belong to the Kshatria Varna (warrior castes). The Rajputs, more than any other Indian Jat, represent the warrior castes of India. Almost any Indian community which claims to be a warrior community, claims a Rajput ancestry. But it is believed that many foreign invaders of ancient India (see- India in the past), like Scythians; Huns; Greeks and others, who adopted Hinduism, integrated in the Rajput community and acquired a Kshatria status (see also Sati - burning of the widow). The Konkanash Brahmans of west India are also believed to have non- Indian descent. According to a Hindu legend, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, Parsuram, found on the Konkan beach some dead bodies which were washed to the shore. In order to cremate them Parsuram gathered them on a pyre. These dead bodies woke up on pyre, probably because they were not dead in the first place but were only unconscious. 

Parsuram converted these people to Hinduism and made them Brahmans. There are other theories about the origins of these Kokanasth Brahmans. Many of these Brahmans have gray-green eyes. Some claim them to be Vikings or of other European origin. In the Konkan coast there is Jewish community called Bene Israel. Some claim that these Jews are from the 'Lost Tribes'. These Jews who arrived in India after their ship-wrecked near the Konkan coast claim that they and the Kokanastha Brahmans are descendants of the survivals from the same ship. And in their version, it was not an incarnation of Lord Vishnu who converted the Kokanastha Brahmans but a local Brahman. Anyway these Jews do not have gray-green eyes like the Kokanastha Brahmans. 

Different religion followers got different status in different parts of India. The Jews of west India (called Bene Israel) had a different status from Jews of south India (Cochini Jews). The Bene Israels professed oil pressing and they had a status equal to a Hindu Jat called Somvar Teli, which also professed oil pressing and were part of Sudra Varna. Some orthodox Hindus treated anyone who was a non-Hindu or doing any type as polluting job as untouchable and therefore treated the Jews as untouchables. But even though the Jews in west India had low status there were among them some who were landlords, businessmen and high rank officers in local armies. Comparing to the Bene Israels, the Jews in south India had higher status. The Jews in Kerala were the business community of Kerala. They even ruled a small kingdom. They had aristocratic rights, such as use of elephants and sedans. They even had servants whose job was to announce their coming to the streets so that the low castes could move away from their way. The relations between the Jewish communities of India are sometimes explained as affected by the Indian caste system but these relations can also be explained according to Jewish religious laws. There were three main Jewish communities in India. The Baghdadis, the Bene Israels and Cochinis. The Baghdadi Jews were much strict about religious laws than the Bene Israel Jews. The Baghdadis did not mingle with Bene Israel Jews. The Baghdadis did not allow marriages between their children and the children of Bene Israel. They did not eat food prepared by Bene Israel and they refused to count the Bene Israel as part of the Minyan (the ten necessary to start a Jewish prayer). Many explain these relations as an influence of the Indian caste system on the Jewish communities. According to this explanation, the Baghdadi Jews referred to themselves as higher caste than the Bene Israel Jews and therefore did not mingle with them. But these relations between the Jewish communities can also be explained according to the Jewish Halacha laws. The Baghdadi Jews who were much strict about Jewish laws and diet did not mingle with the Bene Israels because the Bene Israels were secular Jews and they perceived in Bene Israel Jews as impure Jews. The Muslims who arrived in India were strong and powerful to be treated as untouchables. 

Not only were they strong in the military sense, they also tried to enforce their religion on the Indians. The Indians who converted to Islam in most of the cases remained in the same social status as they had before their conversion to Islam. Hindus from the higher Varnas remained at the higher levels of Indian society. Hindus from the lower levels of the hierarchy thought that by converting to Islam they would come out from the Hindu hierarchy system, but in most of the cases they remained in the same hierarchy level after they converted. Among the Muslims of India there has developed a two-tier hierarchy. The upper class, called Sharif Jat, includes Muslims who belonged to the higher levels in caste hierarchy and also Muslims who arrived to India from foreign countries. The lower class, called Ajlaf Jat, includes Muslim converts from lower castes. As in the world, the upper classes do not have close social relations with lower classes, the same way the Sharif Jat do not normally have close social relations with Ajlaf Jat. The different Christian communities of India were treated in different ways in different parts of India. The Syrian Christians of Kerala had a high status. Along with the Jews, they were the business communities of Kerala and they too had aristocratic rights. The Indians who were baptized from the 16th century by Christian missionaries remained mostly in the same status they had before. As in the Muslim community of India, the Christians also have a two-tier social hierarchy. Many untouchables who converted to Christianity are still treated as untouchables, sometimes by other Christians. The European Christians are also supposed to be untouchables to Hindus. Some Europeans in the 17th and 18th century even claimed that they were treated as untouchables. But later on with British rule over India it were the upper level Hindu castes, specially the Brahmans, who adopted the European democratic philosophy according to which all are equal and they introduced it to other Indians. Other religions which were established in India - Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism - also have some marks of caste system, even though they oppose caste system. Sikhism rejects caste system. But different Jats who adopted Sikhism act according to traditional Jat lines. The different Jats normally marry within caste lines. The Jats which were the elite of the Punjab and converted to Sikhism do not give equal respect to Sikhs who belong to the lower levels of Indian hierarchy. The Jains also have separate communities who marry within the community lines. The Buddhist in India have a two-tier hierarchy and just like in the cases of Christians and Muslims it is also related to the status of the community to whom the person belongs. 

On the other hand the Mahar community of west India, who were untouchables and converted mostly to Buddhism, prefer, because of different political reasons to recognize themselves as Mahars and not always as Buddhists. Not all residents of India were part of the caste system. About 7% of India's population are referred to as tribes and not as castes or Jats. These tribes are scattered all around India and they are descendants of communities who were not interested in the Varna hierarchy. They preferred to live away from the main societies deep in the jungles, forests and mountains of India. They survived mostly on fishing, hunting or simple agriculture, and also from stealing, robbing and plundering. These tribes had different religious beliefs and different gods. Some of them had simple beliefs, but others use to sacrifice human beings in their ceremonies. One such tribe, called Gond, had a strong kingdom in central India. Most of the tribes adopted Hinduism, others adopted Islam or Christianity. Some tribes in East India claim to Jewish origin. Caste system in modern India The leaders of independent India decided that India will be democratic, socialist and secular country. According to this policy there is a separation between religion and state. Practicing untouchability or discriminating a person based on his caste is legally forbidden. Along with this law the government allows positive discrimination of the depressed classes of India. The Indians have also become more flexible in their caste system customs. In general the urban people in India are less strict about the caste system than the rural. In cities one can see different caste people mingling with each other, while in some rural areas there is still discrimination based on castes and sometimes also on untouchability. Sometimes in villages or in the cities there are violent clashes which, are connected to caste tensions. Sometimes the high castes strike the lower castes who dare to uplift their status. Sometimes the lower caste get back on the higher castes. In modern India the term caste is used for Jat and also for Varna. The term, caste was used by the British who ruled India until 1947. The British who wanted to rule India efficiently made lists of Indian communities. They used two terms to describe Indian communities. Castes and Tribes. The term caste was used for Jats and also for Varnas. Tribes were those communities who lived deep in jungles, forests and mountains far away from the main population and also communities who were hard to be defined as castes for example communities who made a living from stealing or robbery. These lists, which the British made, were used later on by the Indian governments to create lists of communities who were entitled for positive discrimination. The castes, which were the elite of the Indian society, were classified as high castes. The other communities were classified as lower castes or lower classes. The lower classes were listed in three categories. The first category is called Scheduled Castes. This category includes in it communities who were untouchables. In modern India, untouchability exists at a very low extent. The untouchables call themselves Dalit, meaning depressed. Until the late 1980s they were called Harijan, meaning children of God. This title was given to them by Mahatma Gandhi who wanted the society to accept untouchables within them. The second category is Scheduled Tribes. This category includes in it those communities who did not accept the caste system and preferred to reside deep in the jungles, forests and mountains of India, away from the main population. The Scheduled Tribes are also called Adivasi, meaning aboriginals. The third category is called sometimes Other Backward Classes or Backward Classes. This category includes in it castes who belong to Sudra Varna and also former untouchables who converted from Hinduism to other religions. This category also includes in it nomads and tribes who made a living from criminal acts. According to the central government policy these three categories are entitled for positive discrimination. Sometimes these three categories are defined together as Backward Classes. 15% of India's population are Scheduled Castes. According to central government policy 15% of the government jobs and 15% of the students admitted to universities must be from Scheduled Castes. For the Scheduled Tribes about 7.5% places are reserved which is their proportion in Indian population. The Other Backwards Classes are about 50% of India's population, but only 27% of government jobs are reserved for them. Along with the central government, the state governments of India also follow a positive discrimination policy. Different states have different figures of communities entitled for positive discrimination based on the population of each state. Different state governments have different lists of communities entitled for positive discrimination. Sometimes a specific community is entitled for rights in a particular state but not in another state of India. In modern India new tensions were created because of these positive discrimination policies. The high caste communities feel discriminated by the government policy to reserve positions for the Backward Classes. In many cases a large number of high caste members compete for a few places reserved for them. While the Backward Classes members do not have to compete at all because of the large number of reserved places for them compared to the candidates. Sometimes in order to fill the quota, candidates from the lower classes are accepted even though they are not suitable. Sometimes some reserved positions remain unmanned because there were few candidates from the lower classes causing more tension between the castes. Between the lower castes there are also tensions over reservation. In the order of priority for a reserved place of the Backward Classes, candidate from the Scheduled castes is preferred over a candidate from the Scheduled Tribes who is preferred over a candidate from the other Backward Classes. As stated earlier Other Backward Classes are about 50% of India's population but only 27% of the Other Backward Classes are entitled for positive discrimination according to central government policy. Some Other Backward Classes communities are organizing politically to be recognized as Backward Classes entitled for positive discrimination. The Scheduled Tribes who are seen as the aborigins of India got ownership and certain rights over Indian land. Many communities in India claim also to be aborigins of India and they are claiming the same rights as the Scheduled Tribes. The caste identity has become a subject of political, social and legal interpretation. Communities who get listed as entitled for positive discrimination do not get out of this list even if their social and political conditions get better. In many cases the legal system is involved to decide if a certain person is entitled for positive discrimination. But with all this positive discrimination policy, most of the communities who were low in the caste hierarchy remain low in the social order even today. And communities who were high in the social hierarchy remain even today high in the social hierarchy. Most of the degrading jobs are even today done by the Dalits, while the Brahmans remain at the top of the hierarchy by being the doctors, engineers and lawyers of India.

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source- http://www.hotathrandom.com/IndianCaste.htm

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